Potential Contribution Of Bioenergy To The World's Future Energy Demand

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PotentialContributionof Bioenergyto the World’sFuture EnergyDemandThis publication highlights the potentialcontribution of bioenergy to worldenergy demand. It summarises thewide range of biomass resourcesavailable and potentially available,the conversion options, and end-useapplications. Associated issues ofmarket development, internationalbioenergy trade, and competition forbiomass are also presented. Finally, thepotential of bioenergy is compared withother energy supply options.IEA BioenergyIEA BIOENERGY: EXCO: 2007:02

ABSTRACTBiomass is a versatile raw material that can be used for productionof heat, power, transport fuels, and bioproducts. When produced andused on a sustainable basis, it is a carbon-neutral carrier and canmake a large contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.Currently, biomass-driven combined heat and power, co-firing, andcombustion plants provide reliable, efficient, and clean power andheat. Production and use of biofuels are growing at a very rapidpace. Sugar cane-based ethanol is already a competitive biofuelin tropical regions. In the medium term, ethanol and high-qualitysynthetic fuels from woody biomass are expected to be competitive atcrude oil prices above US 45 per barrel.Feedstocks for bioenergy plants can include residues fromagriculture, forestry, and the wood processing industry, as well asbiomass produced from degraded and marginal lands. Biomassfor energy may also be produced on good quality agricultural andpasture lands without jeopardising the world’s food and feed supply ifagricultural land use efficiency is increased, especially in developingregions. Revenues from biomass and biomass-derived products couldprovide a key lever for rural development and enhanced agriculturalproduction. Certification schemes are already established to ensuresustainable production of forest biomass and could be adoptedto guide residue recovery and energy crop production. Biomassutilisation will be optimised by processing in biorefineries for bothproducts and energy carriers.Given these possibilities, the potential contribution of bioenergyto the world energy demand of some 467 EJ per year (2004) maybe increased considerably compared to the current 45-55 EJ. Arange from 200-400 EJ per year in biomass harvested for energyproduction may be expected during this century. Assuming expectedaverage conversion efficiencies, this would result in 130-260 EJ peryear of transport fuels or 100-200 EJ per year of electricity.INTRODUCTIONGlobal energy demand is growing rapidly. The total current (2004)commercial energy use amounts to some 467 EJ [IEA, 2006a], andabout 88% of this demand is met by fossil fuels. Energy demand isexpected to at least double or perhaps triple during this century.At the same time, concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs)in the atmosphere are rising rapidly, with fossil fuel-derived CO2emissions being the most important contributor. In order to minimiserelated global warming and climate change impacts, GHG emissionsmust be reduced to less than half the global emission levels of1990. In addition, security of energy supply is a global issue. Alarge proportion of known conventional oil and gas reserves areconcentrated in politically unstable regions, and increasing thediversity in energy sources is important for many nations to securea reliable and constant supply of energy.In this context, biomass for energy can play a pivotal role. Energyfrom biomass, when produced in a sustainable manner, candrastically reduce GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels. Mostcountries have biomass resources available, or could develop such aresource, making biomass a more evenly spread energy supply optionacross the globe. It is a versatile energy source, which can be usedfor producing power, heat, liquid and gaseous fuels, and also servesas a feedstock for materials and chemicals.This publication has been produced by the IEA Bioenergy ExecutiveCommittee based on the considerable information available fromMember Countries. It highlights the contribution of bioenergy inmeeting the world’s future energy demand, through state-of-the-artresearch and market development. It also explores the routes forbioenergy to achieve its potential.2Mechanised harvesting of small trees for biofuel (Courtesy Dr ArtoTimperi, Timberjack)Current use of biomass for energyOver the past decades, the modern use of biomass has increasedrapidly in many parts of the world. In the light of the Kyoto GHGreduction targets, many countries have ambitious targets for furtherbiomass utilisation. Oil price increases have also increased the levelof interest in bioenergy.Current global energy supplies are dominated by fossil fuels (388 EJper year), with much smaller contributions from nuclear power (26EJ) and hydropower (28 EJ). Biomass provides about 45 10 EJ,making it by far the most important renewable energy source used.On average, in the industrialised countries biomass contributes lessthan 10% to the total energy supplies, but in developing countriesthe proportion is as high as 20-30%. In a number of countriesbiomass supplies 50-90% of the total energy demand. A considerablepart of this biomass use is, however, non-commercial and relatesto cooking and space heating, generally by the poorer part of thepopulation. Part of this use is commercial, i.e., the householdfuelwood in industrialised countries and charcoal and firewood inurban and industrial areas in developing countries, but there are verylimited data on the size of those markets. An estimated 9 6 EJare included in this category [WEA, 2000 and 2004].Modern bioenergy (commercial energy production from biomass forindustry, power generation, or transport fuels) makes a lower, butstill very significant contribution (some 7 EJ per year in 2000),and this share is growing. It is estimated that by 2000, 40 GWof biomass-based electricity production capacity was installedworldwide (producing 0.6 EJ electricity per year) and 200 GW ofheat production capacity (2.5 EJ heat per year) [WEA, 2000].Biomass combustion is responsible for over 90% of the currentproduction of secondary energy carriers from biomass. Combustionfor domestic use (heating, cooking), waste incineration, use ofprocess residues in industries, and state-of-the-art furnace and boilerdesigns for efficient power generation all play their role in specificcontexts and markets.Biofuels, mainly ethanol produced from sugar cane and surplusesof corn and cereals, and to a far lesser extent biodiesel from oilseed crops, represent a modest 1.5 EJ (about 1.5%) of transportfuel use worldwide. Global interest in transport biofuels is growing,particularly in Europe, Brazil, North America, and Asia (mostnotably Japan, China and India) [WEA, 2000/2004; IEA, 2006b].Global ethanol production has more than doubled since 2000, whileproduction of biodiesel, starting from a much smaller base, hasexpanded nearly threefold. In contrast, crude oil production hasincreased by only 7% since 2000 [WorldWatch Institute, 2007].

Bioenergy policies and market prospectsDue to rising prices for fossil fuels (especially oil, but also naturalgas and to a lesser extent coal) the competitiveness of biomass usehas improved considerably over time. In addition, the developmentof CO2 markets (emission trading), as well as ongoing learning andsubsequent cost reductions for biomass and bioenergy systems, havestrengthened the economic drivers for increasing biomass production,use, and trade [Schlamadinger et al., 2006]. Biomass and bioenergyare now a key option in energy policies. Security of supply, analternative for mineral oil and reduced carbon emissions are keyreasons. Targets and expectations for bioenergy in many nationalpolicies are ambitious, reaching 20-30% of total energy demand invarious countries. Similarly, long-term energy scenarios also containchallenging targets.Sufficient biomass resources and a well-functioning biomass marketthat can assure reliable, sustainable, and lasting biomass suppliesare crucial preconditions to realise such ambitions. To date, variouscountries have considerable experience with building biomassmarkets and linking available resources with market demand.Examples are found in Brazil, Sweden, Finland, Canada, and theNetherlands. Relatively recently, international trade in biomassresources has become part of the portfolio of market dealers andvolumes traded worldwide have increased at a very rapid pace withan estimated doubling of volumes in several markets over the pastfew years [Faaij et al., 2005].The potential for energy crops depends largely on land availabilityconsidering that worldwide a growing demand for food has to be met,combined with environmental protection, sustainable managementof soils and water reserves, and a variety of other sustainabilityrequirements. Given that a major part of the future biomass resourceavailability for energy and materials depends on these complexand related factors, it is not possible to present the future biomasspotential in one simple figure.Table 1 provides a synthesis of analyses of the longer term potentialof biomass resource availability on a global scale. Also, a numberof uncertainties are highlighted that can affect biomass availability.These estimates are sensitive to assumptions about crop yields andthe amount of land that could be made available for the productionof biomass for energy uses, including biofuels. Critical issues include: GLOBAL BIOMASS RESOURCES Various biomass resource categories can be considered: residues fromforestry and agriculture, various organic waste streams and, mostimportantly, the possibilities for dedicated biomass production onland of different categories, e.g., grass production on pasture land,wood plantations and sugar cane on arable land, and low productivityafforestation schemes for marginal and degraded lands.Competition for water resources: Although the estimates presentedin Table 1 generally exclude irrigation for biomass production, itmay be necessary in some countries where water is already scarce.Use of fertilisers and pest control techniques: Improved farmmanagement and higher productivity depend on the availability offertilisers and pest control. The environmental effects of heavy useof fertiliser and pesticides could be serious.Land-use: More intensive farming to produce energy crops on alarge-scale may result in losses of biodiversity. Perennial cropsare expected to be less harmful than conventional crops suchas cereals and seeds, or even able to achieve positive effects.More intensive cattle-raising would also be necessary to free upgrassland currently used for grazing.Competition with food and feed production: Increased biomassproduction for biofuels out of balance with required productivityincreases in agriculture could drive up land and food prices.Table 1: Overview of the global potential of biomass for energy (EJ per year) to 2050 for a number of categories and the main preconditions and assumptions that determine these potentials [Sources: Berndes et al., 2003; Smeets et al., 2007; Hoogwijk et al., 2005a].Biomass categoryMain assumptions and remarksEnergy potential inbiomass up to 2050Potential land surplus: 0-4 Gha (average: 1-2 Gha). A large surplus requires structuraladaptation towards more efficient agricultural production systems. When this is not feasible,the bioenergy potential could be reduced to zero. On average higher yields are likely becauseof better soil quality: 8-12 dry tonne/ha/yr* is assumed.0 – 700 EJ(more averagedevelopment: 100– 300 EJ)Biomass productionon marginal lands.On a global scale a maximum land surface of 1.7 Gha could be involved. Low productivityof 2-5 dry tonne/ha/yr.* The net supplies could be low due to poor economics or competitionwith food production. 60 – 110 EJResidues fromagriculturePotential depends on yield/product ratios and the total agricultural land area as well as typeof production system. Extensive production systems require re-use of residues for maintainingsoil fertility. Intensive systems allow for higher utilisation rates of residues.15 – 70 EJForest residuesThe sustainable energy potential of the world’s forests is unclear – some natural forestsare protected. Low value: includes limitations with respect to logistics and strict standardsfor removal of forest material. High value: technical potential. Figures include processingresidues30 - 150 EJDungUse of dried dung. Low estimate based on global current use. High estimate: technicalpotential. Utilisation (collection) in the longer term is uncertain5 – 55 EJOrganic wastesEstimate on basis of literature values. Strongly dependent on economic development,consumption and the use of bio-materials. Figures include the organic fraction of MSW andwaste wood. Higher values possible by more intensive use of bio-materials.5 – 50 EJCombined potentialMost pessimistic scenario: no land available for energy farming; only utilisation of residues.Most optimistic scenario: intensive agriculture concentrated on the better quality soils.In parentheses: average potential in a world aiming for large-scale deployment of bioenergy.40 – 1100 EJ(200 - 400 EJ)* Heating value: 19 GJ/tonne dry matter.3IEA BioenergyEnergy farming oncurrent agriculturalland

Focussing on the more average estimates of biomass resourcepotentials, energy farming on current agricultural (arable andpasture) land could, with projected technological progress, contribute100 - 300 EJ annually, without jeopardising the world’s future foodsupply. A significant part of this potential (around 200 EJ in 2050)for biomass production may be developed at low production costs inthe range of E2/GJ assuming this land is used for perennial crops[Hoogwijk et al., 2005b; WEA, 2000]. Another 100 EJ could beproduced with lower productivity and higher costs, from biomass onmarginal and degraded lands. Regenerating such lands requires moreupfront investment, but competition with other land-uses is less ofan issue and other benefits (such as soil restoration, improved waterretention functions) may be obtained, which could partly compensatefor biomass production costs.significant role for organic waste, especially when biomaterials areused on a larger scale. In total, the bioenergy potential could amountto 400 EJ per year during this century. This is comparable to thetotal current fossil energy use of 388 EJ.Key to the introduction of biomass production in the suggestedorders of magnitude is the rationalisation of agriculture, especiallyin developing countries. There is room for considerably higher landuse efficiencies that can more than compensate for the growingdemand for food [Smeets et al., 2007].The development and deployment of perennial crops (in particularin developing countries) is of key importance for bioenergy in thelong run. Regional efforts are needed to deploy biomass productionand supply systems adapted to local conditions, e.g., for specificagricultural, climatic, and socio-economic conditions.CONVERSION OPTIONS AND OUTLOOKConversion routes for producing energy carriers from biomassare plentiful. Figure 1 illustrates the main conversion routes thatare used or under development for production of heat, power andtransport fuels. Key conversion technologies for production ofpower and heat are combustion and gasification of solid biomass,and digestion of organic material for production of biogas. Maintechnologies available or developed to produce transportation fuelsare fermentation of sugar and starch crops to produce ethanol,gasification of solid biomass to produce syngas and synthetic fuels(like methanol and high quality diesel), and extraction of vegetal oilsfrom oilseed crops, which can be esterified to produce biodiesel.The Avedore Powerstation, near Copenhagen shows prize winningarchitecture (Courtesy Thomas Scottt Lund, Energi E2, Denmark)Combined and using the more average potential estimates, organicwastes and residues could possibly supply another 40-170 EJ,with uncertain contributions from forest residues and potentially aThe various technological options are in different stages ofdeployment and development. Tables 2 and 3 provide a compactoverview of the main technology categories and their performancewith respect to energy efficiency and energy production costs. The‘End-use Applications’ section discusses the likely deployment ofvarious technologies for key markets in the short- and the long-term.Figure 1: Main conversion options for biomass to secondary energy carriers [WEA, 2000]. Some categories represent a wide range oftechnological concepts as well as capacity ranges at which they are deployed, and these are dealt with further in the text.4

Table 2: Overview of current and projected performance data for the main conversion routes of biomass to power and heat and summary oftechnology status and deployment. Due to the variability of technological designs and conditions assumed, all costs are indicative [van Looand Koppejan, 2002; Knoef, 2005; USDOE, 1998; Dornburg and Faaij, 2001].ConversionoptionTypicalcapacityNet efficiency(LHV basis)Investment cost ranges(E/kW)Status and deploymentBiogasproductionvia anaerobicdigestionUp to severalMWe10-15%electrical(assuming on-siteproduction ofelectricity)Well established technology. Widely appliedfor homogeneous wet organic waste streamsand waste water. To a lesser extent used forheterogeneous wet wastes such as organicdomestic wastes.Landfill gasproductionGenerallyseveral hundredkWeAs above.Very attractive GHG mitigation option. Widelyapplied and, in general, part of waste treatmentpolicies of many countries.Combustionfor heatResidential:5-50 kWthLow for classicfireplaces, upto 70-90%for modernfurnaces. 100/kWth for logwoodstoves,300-800/kWth forautomatic furnaces,300-700/kWth for largerfurnacesClassic firewood use still widely deployed, butnot growing. Replacement by modern heatingsystems (i.e., automated, flue gas cleaning,pellet firing) in e.g., Austria, Sweden, Germanyongoing for years.60-90%(overall)3500 (Stirling)2700 (ORC)80-100%(overall)2500-3000 (Steamturbine)Stirling engines, steam screw type engines,steam engines, and organic rankine cycle (ORC)processes are in demonstration for small-scaleapplications between 10 kW and 1 MWe.Steam turbine based systems 1-10 MWe arewidely deployed throughout the world.Industrial:1-5 MWthCombined heatand power0.1-1 MWe1-20 MWe20- 100 MWe20-40%(electrical)2.500 –1600Well established technology, especially deployedin Scandinavia and North America; variousadvanced concepts using fluid bed technologygiving high efficiency, low costs and highflexibility. Commercially deployed waste toenergy (incineration) has higher capital costsand lower (average) efficiency.Co-combustion ofbiomass with coalTypically 5100 MWe atexisting coalfired stations.Higher for newmultifuel powerplants.30-40%(electrical)100-1000 costs ofexisting power station(depending on biomassfuel co-firingconfiguration)Widely deployed in various countries, nowmainly using direct combustion in combinationwith biomass fuels that are relatively clean.Biomass that is more contaminated and/ordifficult to grind can be indirectly co-fired, e.g.,using gasification processes. Interest in largerbiomass co-firing shares and utilisation of moreadvanced options is increasing.Gasification forheat productionTypicallyhundreds kWth80-90%(overall)Several hundred/ kWth,depending on capacityCommercially available and deployed; buttotal contribution to energy production to datelimited.Gasification/CHP using gasengines0.1 – 1 MWe15-30%(electrical)60-80%(overall)1.000-3.000 (depends onconfiguration)Various systems on the market. Deploymentlimited due to relatively high costs, criticaloperational demands, and fuel quality.Gasification usingcombined cyclesfor electricity(BIG/CC)30-200 MWe40-50%(or higher;electrical)5.000 – 3.500 (demos)2.000 – 1.000 (longerterm, larger scale)Demonstration phase at 5-10 MWe rangeobtained. Rapid development in the ninetieshas stalled in recent years. First generationconcepts prove capital intensive.Pyrolysis forproduction ofbio-oil10 tonnes/hrin the shorterterm up to 100tonnes/hr in thelonger term.60-70% biooil/feedstockand 85% for oil char.Scale and biomass supplydependent; Approx700/kWth input for a 10MWth input unitCommercial technology available. Bio-oil isused for power production in gas turbines, gasengines, for chemicals and precursors, directproduction of transport fuels, as well as fortransporting energy over longer distances.5IEA BioenergyCombustion forpower generation

Table 3: Overview of current and projected performance data for the main conversion routes of biomass to transport fuels. Due to thevariability of data in the various references and conditions assumed, all cost figures should be considered as indicative [Hamelinck and Faaij,2006; IEA, 2006b; Ogden et al., 1999; IEA, 2004; Lynd, 1996].Energy efficiency (HHV) energy inputsEstimated production costs ( /GJ fuel)ConceptShort-termHydrogen: via biomass gasification andsubsequent syngas processing. Combinedfuel and power production possible; forproduction of liquid hydrogen additionalelectricity use should be taken into account. Long-termShort-termLong-term9-125-860% (fuel only)55% (fuel)6% (power)( energy inputof 0.19 GJe/GJH2 for liquidhydrogen)( 0.19 GJe/GJ H2 for liquidhydrogen)Methanol: via biomass gasification andsubsequent syngas processing. Combinedfuel and power production possible55% (fuel only)48% (fuel)12% (power)10-156-8Fischer-Tropsch liquids: via biomassgasification and subsequent syngasprocessing. Combined fuel and powerproduction possible45% (fuel only)45% (fuel)10% (power12-177-9Ethanol from wood: production takes placevia hydrolysis techniques and subsequentfermentation and includes integratedelectricity production of unprocessedcomponents.46% (fuel)4% (power)53% (fuel)8% (power)12-175-7Ethanol from sugar beet: production viafermentation; some additional energy inputsare needed for distillation.43% (fuel only)0.065 GJe 0.24 GJth/GJEtOH25-3520-3020-30Ethanol from sugar cane: production viacane crushing and fermentation and powergeneration from the bagasse. Mill size,advanced power generation and optimisedenergy efficiency and distillation can reducecosts further in the longer term.85 litre EtOHper tonne of wetcane, generallyenergy neutralwith respect topower and heat95 litre EtOH per tonne ofwet cane. Electricity surplusesdepend on plant lay-out andpower generation technology.8-127-8Biodiesel RME: takes place via extraction(pressing) and subsequent esterification.Methanol is an energy input. For the totalsystem it is assumed that surpluses of straware used for power production.88%; 0.01 GJe 0.04 GJ MeOH per GJ output.Efficiency of power generation in the shorter term,45%; in the longer term, 55%25-4020-30Assumed biomass price of clean wood: E2/GJ. RME cost figures varied from E20/GJ (short-term) to E12/GJ (longer term), for sugar beet a range ofE8 to E12/GJ is assumed. All figures exclude distribution of the fuels to fuelling stations.For equipment costs, an interest rate of 10%, economic lifetime of 15 years is assumed. Capacities of conversion unit are normalised on 400 MWthinput in the shorter term and 1000 MWth input using advanced technologies and optimised systems in the longer term.Diesel and gasoline production costs vary strongly depending on the oil prices, but for indication: recent cost ranges (end 90s till 2006 are between E4and E9/GJ. Longer term projections give estimates of roughly E6 to E10/GJ. Note that the transportation fuel retail prices are usually dominated bytaxation and can vary between Ect50 and Ect130 /litre depending on the country in question.Short-term represents best available technology or the currently noncommercial systems which could be built around 2010. Long-termrepresents technology with considerable improvement, large-scaledeployment, and incorporation of process innovations that could berealised around 2040. This is also the case for the biomass supplies,assuming biomass production and supply costs around E2/GJ forplants which are close to the biomass production areasEND-USE APPLICATIONSBiomass-based energy carriers are competitive alternatives insituations where cheap, or even ‘negative-cost’, biomass residuesor wastes are available. In order to make large-scale bioenergy usecompetitive with fossil fuels, the conversion technologies, biomassproduction (especially from dedicated biomass crops), and totalbioenergy systems require further development and optimisation.Table 4 gives an overview of the perspectives for bioenergy processescombined with main biomass resources.6Heat and power from biomassProduction of heat and electricity dominate current bioenergy use.At present, the main growth markets for bioenergy are the EuropeanUnion, North America, Central and Eastern Europe, and Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia), especially with respect toefficient power generation from biomass wastes and residues and forbiofuels. Two key industrial sectors for application of state-of-theart biomass combustion (and potentially gasification) technology forpower generation are the paper and pulp sector and cane-based sugarindustry.Power generation from biomass by advanced combustion technologyand co-firing schemes is a growth market worldwide. Mature,efficient, and reliable technology is available to turn biomass intopower. In various markets the average scale of biomass combustionschemes rapidly increases due to improved availability of biomassresources and economies of scale of conversion technology.Competitive performance compared to fossil fuels is possible wherelower cost residues are available particularly in co-firing schemes,where investment costs can be minimal. Specific (national) policies

gasifier/diesel systems are still unclear and depend strongly onwhat emissions and fuel quality are considered acceptable. CHPgeneration is generally attractive when heat is required with highload factors.such as carbon taxes or renewable energy support can accelerate thisdevelopment. Gasification technology (integrated with gas turbines/combined cycles) offers even better perspectives for power generationfrom biomass in the medium term and can make power generationfrom energy crops competitive in many areas in the world once thistechnology has been proven on a commercial scale. Gasification, inparticular larger scale circulating fluidised bed (CFB) concepts, alsooffers excellent possibilities for co-firing schemes.Traditional use of biomass, in particular, is for production of heatfor cooking and space heating. It is not expected that this traditionaluse will diminish in coming decades. Nevertheless, modernisingbioenergy use for poorer populations is an essential component ofsustainable development schemes in many countries. This createsopportunities and major markets - for example, for improved stoves,and production of high quality fuels for cooking (e.g., biofuel-basedsuch as ethanol and Fischer-Tropsch liquids) - with considerableefficiency and health advantages. Furthermore, digesters producingbiogas on a village level, can prove very effective in variouscountries (such as China and India) in solving waste treatmentproblems and supplying high-quality energy carriers (clean gas andpower when used in gas engines) along with hygienic bio-fertilisers.With biomass prices of about E2/GJ, state-of-the-art combustiontechnology at a scale of 40-60 MWe can result in electricity costsof around Ect4 to 6 /kWh produced. Co-combustion, particularly atefficient coal-fired power plants, can result in similar or lower costfigures, largely depending on the feedstock costs. When BiomassIntegrated Gasification/Combined Cycle technology becomesavailable commercially, electricity costs could drop further to aboutEct3 to 4 /kWh, especially with higher electrical efficiencies. Forlarger scales (i.e., over 100 MWe) cultivated biomass will be able tocompete with fossil fuels in many situations [Knoef, 2005; Williamsand Larson, 1996] The benefits of lower specific capital costs andincreased efficiency may in many cases outweigh the increase incosts and energy use for transport for considerable distances once areasonably well-developed infrastructure is in place.Decentralised power (and heat) production is generally moreexpensive due to higher capital costs and lower efficienciesthan large-scale systems, but could be economical for off-gridapplications. The costs that could ultimately be obtained with e.g.,For commercial heat production, reliable technology (e.g., boilers,advanced stoves, etc.) is commercially available for many industrial,district and domestic heating applications. Also, combined heatand power generation seems attractive to various markets. Theproduction of heat and process steam from biomass for specificindustrial applications is an economically attractive option, as isevident in the paper and pulp and sugar industries worldwide.Table 4: Generic overview of performance projections for different biomass resource – technology combinations and energy markets onshorter ( 5 years) and longer ( 20 years) timeframes. [WEA, 2004; IEA, 2006b; Faaij, 2006; IPCC, 2007; Knoef, 2005; van Loo andKoppejan, 2002]BiomassresourceHeatShort-term;stabilising marketOrganicwastes (i.e.,MSW etc.)Undesirable fordomestic purposes(emissions);industrial useattractive;in generalcompetitive.ElectricityLonger termEspeciallyattractivein industrialsetting andCHP. (advancedcombustion andgasification forfuel gas)Transport fuelsLonger term;growth maystabilise dueto competitionof alternativeoptionsShort-term;growing market,but highly policydriven Ect3-5/kWh forstate-of-the-art wasteincineration and cocombustion. Economicsstrongly affectedby tipping fees andemission standards.Similar range;improvementsin efficiencyandenvironmentalperformance,in particularthrough IG/CCtechnology atlarge-scale.N.A.In particularpossible

Energy potential in biomass up to 2050 Energy farming on current agricultural land Potential land surplus: 0-4 Gha (average: 1-2 Gha). A large surplus requires structural . Forest residues The sustainable energy potential of the world's forests is unclear - some natural forests are protected. Low value: includes limitations with respect .

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