Multiple Baseline Designs: The Use Of A Single-case .
MULTIPLE BASELINE DESIGNS: THE USE OF ASINGLE-CASE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN IN LITERACYRESEARCHRicHAEL BARGER-ANDERSONSlippery Rock University of PennsylvaniaJOSEPH W . DOMARACKIIndiana University of PennsylvaniaNEDRA KEARNEY-VAKULICKCalifornia University of PennsylvaniaRICHARD M . KUBINA JR.The Pennsylvania State University -University ParkSingle-case experimental designs are becoming more popularand acceptable ways to conduct classroom-based research. Single-case designs can also be beneficial when conducting literacyresearch. There are a variety of single-case research designs thatcan accommodate a range of instructional strategies and researchquestions. This paper provides examples and reasons for usingthe multiple baseline with literacy research. The effectiveness ofmultiple baseline designs are also examined in relation to the following experimental design issues: control, replication, causalrelationships, internal and external validity and ethical concerns.Single-case experimental researchdesigns are becoming more popular andacceptable ways to conduct classroombased research (Birnbrauer, Peterson,Solnick, 1974; Gay & Airasian, 2000; Neuman & McCormick, 1995; Richards,Taylor, Ramasamy, & Richards, 1999).Since the mid sixties, single-case researchdesigns have continued to increase in popularity (Gay, 1987). There is a need toincrease awareness about the qualities andattributes of single-case research designsbecause many misconceptions still exist(Dermer & Hoch, 1999).Single-case, or single-subject, experi-mental research design can personalize thedata collection process because data is collected on each subject, or participant, andis individually analyzed. The term singlesubject is not used because there is only oneparticipant; rather, it refers to the procedure for data collection and the focus of thestudy as opposed to the number of participants. (Neuman & McCormick, 1995).Additionally, experimental control is established with each participant (Cooper,Heron, & Heward, 1987; Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993).Wolery and Gast (2000) suggest teachers do not always have access to a large217
218 / Reading Improvementnumber of participants to use group designstherefore single-case designs offer anexcellent opportunity for teachers to conduct research in their classroom. Gay andAirasian (2000) agree that single-subjectdesigns may be beneficial for use in theclassroom due to the limited size of accessible population. For example, in specialeducation the numbers of students in selfcontained or resource rooms are generallysmall making single-case designs useful."Approximately one third of all data-basedinterventions conducted on students withlearning disabilities use single-subjectdesigns" (Swanson, Hoskyn, Sachse-Lee,& O'Shaughnessy, as cited in Swanson &Sachse-Lee, 2000, p. 144).A meta-analysis of eighty-five singlesubject research design studies involvingspecific instructional skill domains hadreading as a focus (Swanson & SachseLee, 2000). In fact, "most of theintervention studies conducted were in thedomain of reading" (p. 149). When examining the meta-analysis Swanson andSachse-Lee report that a multiple baselinedesign was used in 62% of the studies.Other findings were that 34% of the studies occurred in a resource classroom and99% of the materials used were existingmaterials in the classroom. The meta-analysis indicates that single-case researchdesigns help teachers and researchersexamine variables that effect student learning.There are several types of designs tochoose from when utilizing single-caseresearch. The most familiar types includethe withdrawal design, reversal design,multiple-baseline designs, and the alternating treatments design (Gay, 1987; Gay& Airasian, 2000; Neuman & McCormick,1995; Richards et al., 1999). Of theseoptions the multiple baseline design offersa considerable degree of flexibility in classroom research (Swanson & Sachse-Lee,2000).Multiple Baseline DesignsMultiple baseline designs provide ameans for collecting multiple sets of datain a single-case experimental design (Neuman & McCormick, 1995). Kucera andAxelrod (1995) state multiple baselinedesigns are "particularly well-suited to literacy research" (p. 47). The authors alsomaintain that multiple baseline designs canhelp examine new techniques and strategies that are used and found to be effectivein the area of teaching reading. The multiple baseline design is the design of choicewhen it is not possible for subjects to returnto original baseline (Hersen & Barlow,1984; Gay 1987; Gay & Airasian, 2000;McReynolds & Keams, 1983). For example, once a student has learned a newstrategy for decoding words is not desirable, and in many cases possible, to havethe student unlearn the new skill.There are three types of multiple baseline designs. These include the multiplebaseline across behaviors, subjects or participants, and settings (Cooper, Heron, &Heward, 1987; Gay, 1987; Gay & Airasian,2000; Hersen & Barlow, 1984; Kazdin &Kopel, 1975; McReynold & Keams, 1983;Neuman & McCormick, 1995). Albertoand Troutman (2003) provide the following examples for potential behaviors ofinterest to classroom teacher; a multiple
Multiple Baseline Designs./ 219baseline across behaviors can study talking out and out of seat behavior. A multiplebaseline across subjects could targetspelling accuracy for multiple students.And a multiple baseline across settingsmight examine a student's inappropriatebehavior of swearing in recess and the cafeteria. In literacy research, any almost anyquestion involving a dependent variableand independent variable can be asked provided the answer can be obtained by a fewparticipants. For the purposes of illustrating a technical application, the multiplebaseline across participants design will beused as example.The multiple baseline across participants addresses the impact of the treatmentof the independent variable on the dependent variable, the same behavior, fordifferent participants. Once a baseline hasbeen established, the treatment or independent variable is applied to one of theparticipants. During this time, baseline ismaintained for the other participants. Onceimprovement is seen for the first participant, the treatment is started with thesecond subject, and so on. The reasoningbehind this design is that if one participantshows improvement when treatment isstarted it is probable that improvement isdue to the treatment. If gains were reflected in the other participants' behaviors eventhough they were in baseline, a conclusioncould not be made that the independentvariable was the most probable reason forthe observed changes.Baseline data is retrieved for a minimum of one behavior across multiplesubjects (Kazdin, 1973). It is generallycautioned, however, that prolonged baselines for students who need interventionon a more immediate basis may not be educationally sound (Neuman & McCormick,1995; Schloss & Smith, 1998). For example, a student who engages in physicalaggression should not be allowed to continue for the sake of a scientific study.While physical aggression can be studiedexperimentally, using a multiple baselinedesign would not be the best choice for thestudent and those around him.Figure 1 shows an example of a multiple baseline design used with threeelementary students. The data points represent words read correctly per minute onpassages selected by the teacher. During thebaseline phase, the students do not comein contact with the independent variable.To do so would be to compromise experimental control. When the experimenterimplements the independent variable of"repeated readings," the first student, Tom,shows an increase in his reading rate.Inspecting the other two students still inbaseline, an increase in reading rate is notobserved. When Sue enters the independent variable phase her reading rate alsoincreases with the repeated readings intervention. The third student, Eric, is notshowing an increase during his baselineperformance. Only when Eric receives theindependent variable does his reading rateaccelerate. The multiple baseline shows apossible functional relationship with theintroduction of the independent variablerepeated readings and the words read correctly per minute for the three 2nd gradestudents.In the ever-continuing quest for knowledge surrounding effective literacyinterventions, teachers and researchersobserve behavior, gather data, analyze and
220 / Reading Improvementinterpret the information and come to aconclusion regarding their research (Leedy& Ellis-Ormrod, 2001). As an additionalresearch option, the multiple baseline is asingle-case design well suited for experiments requiring small numbers ofparticipants. The following section outlines the multiple baseline design andshows how it meets the standards for thefollowing experimental benchmarks; internal and external validity, control,replication, causal relationships and weaknesses and ethical concerns.Experimental StandardsInternal and External Validity. As withgroup designs, internal and external validity are important issues to be consideredwhen using single-case designs. Whenchanges occur that are attributable to theeffects of the independent variable, thestudy has internal validity (Poling & Grossett, 1986). Internal validity of a single-casedesign is considered acceptable if an intervention is reliably associated with higherresponse levels while also revealing soundexperimental control (Neuman &McCormick, 1995). In the case of a multiple baseline design, the changes occurringin each phase arise from the systematicapplication of the independent variable,not some extraneous variable.External validity refers to the degree towhich the results from a study can be generalized to other groups or settings (Gay& Airasian, 2000). Regardless of the typeof experimental design used, single-case orgroup design, a number of factors encompass external validity (Poling & Grossett,1986). Neuman and McCormick (1995)suggest that the best ways to attend to theissues of external validity include: 1) providing a rich and detailed description ofthe setting and the intervention, 2) detailing the measures, and 3) generalizing theresults to a particular theory.Control. Gay and Airasian (2000)explain how control is a primary characteristic of experimental studies: "Directmanipulation by the researcher of at leastone independent variable is the one singlecharacteristic that differentiates experimental research from other types ofresearch. Control refers to the researcher'sefforts to remove the influence of any extraneous variable (other than the independentvariable itself) that might affect scores onthe dependent variable" (p. 370). Dermerand Hoch (1999) propose that the singlecase researcher views control as a way todiscard variability caused by anything otherthan the treatment or independent variable.Control should continue until theresearcher can visually determine an effectof the treatment. Single-case research usescontrol procedures rather than controlgroups (Good, 2000). Each student, then,serves as her or his own control (Gay &Airasian, 2000; Wolery & Gast, 2000).Control can be difficult to achieve in aresearch design, particularly when dealingwith people (Gay & Airasian, 2000). Con-,trol is even more challenging to achieve inthe multiple baseline design when different interventions are offered sequentially.Counterbalancing is a possible way to control for order effect when using two or moreinterventions in multiple baseline designresearch. "The counterbalancing of treatments permits a comparison of theeffectiveness of the two instructional methods" (Domaracki, 1987, p. 57).
Multiple Baseline Designs./221Counterbalancing is completed in a studyto address the concem of order effects. Thefirst subject receives a treatment, a secondsubject receives a different treatment, thenonce the subjects have shown improvements, the treatments are reversed.Counterbalancing is an attempt to controlfor order effects (McReynolds & Keams,1983).Replication. Replication is importantto all areas of science in two ways. First,to establish the reliability of previous findings and second, to determine thegenerality of the findings under differingconditions (Hersen & Barlow, 1976).Hersen and Barlow also point out that manyresearchers welcome replicating their single-subject design study or one of anotherresearcher. Specifically because each replication not only helps to generalize resultsbut also helps to validate the findings. Interms of generalizability, the more replications that are completed while retrievingsimilar results, the more convincing it is ingeneralizing the results to other subjects(Bimbrauer et al., 1974; Gay, 1987).Replication of multiple baseline andother single-case designs depends on accurate, detailed, and rich descriptions of thestudy (Neuman & McCormick, 1995)."Readers need to know about the selection, assignment, and number of subjectswho will participate in the experiment"(Creswell, 1994, p. 126). Without providing this information, replication in futurestudies will not be possible. Single-caseresearch designs must include sufficientdetail so that a study can be replicated(Bimbrauer et al., 1974).The number of replications in the studyand the treatment effectiveness demon-strates control (Hersen & Barlow, 1976;Parsonson & Baer, 1978; McReynolds &Keams, 1983). It has been recommendedthat a study should be replicated at least twoto four times (Kazdin & Kopel, 1975; Wolf& Risley, 1971). Two replications are onlysuggestive but a set of three to four replications is more convincing in terms ofexperimental control and treatment effectiveness (Wolf & Risley, 1971). In termsof baseline collection, Hersen and Barlow(1976) recommend three to four baselinesin a study.Causal Relationships. Experimentalresearch is the only form of research thatcan establish cause-effect relationships(Creswell, 1994; Gay & Airasian, 2000).Researchers must manipulate at least oneindependent variable while also controlling other relevant variables. The resultingeffect on the dependent variable allows theexperimenter to draw a conclusion of arelationship between the variables. Manipulation of the independent variable is thekey difference between experimentalresearch and other types of research (Gay& Airasian, 2000). As such, single-casedesigns like the multiple baseline presentthe opportunity to conduct experimentalresearch. In the words of Good (2000):"Single-subject experimental design is arigorous technique for evaluation that cantypically stand alone in assessing programeffectiveness" (p. 35).Cause-and-effect relationships in single-case experimental research can beincreased through treatments and replications (Bimbrauer et al., 1974). The purposeof the single-case design, even while usingthe multiple baseline approach, is to determine levels of causation for each individual
222 / Reading Improvementparticipant involved in the study (Dermer& Hoch, 1999). Functional relationshipsare probable if the student's performanceis altered only in response to the systematic application of the independent variable(Neuman & McCormick, 1995). Changesthat occur in a study are more likely to beindicative in proving the effect of the treatment when baselines are independent fromthe treatment (Kazdin & Kopel, 1975).Weaknesses/Ethical Concerns. Whenscrutinizing multiple baseline designs, ethical concerns are very seldom an issuegenerating much discussion (McReynolds& Keams, 1983; Neuman & McCormick,1995). One reason is because multiplebaseline designs do not withdrawal treatment. In other single-subject experimentalresearch designs (e.g., withdrawal design),treatment is implemented followed by areturn to baseline through the removal ofthe independent variable. For instance,once a students learns how to apply a specific comprehension strategy, the studentdoes not have to unlearn it for the sake ofdemonstrating a functional relationship.One area of concern however, is theprolonged nature of baselines. Extendedbaselines are not always educationallysound for students who need intervention(Neuman & McCormick, 1995). In special education, a student may be behindhis same aged peers by a year or more.Some single-case experimental designsallow teachers and researchers the opportunity to immediately implement atreatment (e.g., alternating treatmentsdesign) rather than have the student waitin baseline for a protracted period of time.A further potential weakness of the multiple baseline design is establishingcause-and-effect relationships. Researchersmust be aware of causal variables to makestatements regarding generality (Dermer& Hoch, 1999). Multiple baseline designscontain potential weaknesses when itcomes to proving the effect of the study(Kazdin, 1973). The subsequent phasesused to verify that a treatment effect isoccurring are done by inference. Inferenceis demonstrated by the following example; a student whose behavior changes afterthe independent variable is introduced is anA-B condition (i.e., A is the baseline andB the intervention). The second studentalso has an A-B condition albeit staggeredfrom the first student. Any subsequent students in later implementation still undergothe A-B condition and the inference ismade from all of the data that the effect isdue to the intervention.Another difficult task in the use of themultiple baseline design is choosing dependent variables that are independent of eachother. If the dependent variables are notindependent of one another, it is not possible to determine the effects of theindependent variable. The possibility forthe target behaviors to co-vary makes theresults of the cause questionable (Hersen& Barlow, 1976; Kazdin, 1973; Neuman& McCormick, 1995). Using a multiplebaseline across behaviors with narrativeand persuasive writing may result in twobehaviors that do not co-vary enough. Theeffects of the independent variable maynot be clearly demonstrated with two similar behaviors.An additional concern lies in the factthat the participant cannot return to baseline. The multiple baseline design isappropriate to utilize when is not possible
Multiple Baseline Designs./223or tolerable to return the behavior to baseline (Neuman & McCormick, 1995).However, there are mixed reviews in the literature as to the need for this. For instance,Baer, Wolf, and Risely (1968) have longmaintained that a return to baseline is notneeded to prove cause-and-effect relationships. On the other hand, there is noway possible to be sure the treatmenteffects would be the same if the treatmentphase came before the basehne phase (Gay& Airasian, 2000; Bimbrauer et al., 1974).Many replications of any single-caseresearch design are needed to prove causeand-effect relationships. Further, noexperiment, regardless of the method,should create a general assumption of acause-and-effect relationship after onlyone completion of the study (Neuman &McCormick, 1995). Wolery and Gast(2000) and Bimbrauer et al. (1974) suggestthe best way of proving cause-and-effectrelationships is through direct and systematic replication of studies.(Bimbrauer et al., 1974; Gay, 1987; Gay& Airasian, 2000; Neuman & McCormick,1995) which can accommodate a variety ofinstructional strategies (Swanson &Sachse-Lee, 2000). The multiple baselinedesign can accommodate research variables ranging from decoding andcomprehension to spelling and expressivewriting. The experimental standards reliedupon to produce sound studies (i.e., internal and external validity, control,replication, causal relationships and weaknesses and ethical concerns) and makesubsequent generations are present in themultiple baseline design. And with oursociety continuing to demand competentreaders and high degrees of literacy, teachers and researchers will need a number ofresearch tools for their disposal. The multiple baseline is one such single-case designthat can aid experimental studies of literacy.ConclusionAlberto P. A., & Troutman A. C. (2003). Appliedbehavior analysis for teachers (6 ed.). UpperSaddle River, NJ: Merrill.ReferencesSingle-case designs have been used inpsychology and psychiatry. However, theycan be very beneficial in educational settings (Gay, 1987; Scholss & Smith, 1998).An instructor of a classroom can easilyimplement single-case research designs.Single-case experimental research designsoffer an avenue to more closely examinecomponents of literacy research (Good,2000). This approach to research can beof use especially when students involvedin the study need remedial assistance (Neuman & McCormick, 1995).There are many types of single-caseresearch designs that may be employedBaer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968).Some current dimensions of applied behavioranalysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.Bimbrauer, J. S., Peterson, C. R., & Solnick, J. V.(1974). Design and interpretation of studies ofsingle-subjects. American Journal of MentalDeficiency, 79(1), 191-203.Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design qualitative and quantitative approaches. ThousandOaks, CA; SAGE.Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E., & Heward, W. L.(1987). Applied behavior analysis. Columbus:Merrill.
224 / Reading ImprovementDermer, M. L., & Hoch, T. A. (1999). Improvingdescriptions of single-subject experiments inresearch texts written for undergraduates. Psychological Record, 49(1), 49-66.McReynolds, L. V., & Kearns, K. R. (1983). Single-subjectexperimentaldesignsincommunicative disorders. Baltimore: University Park Press.Domaracki, J. W. (1987). General case simulationinstruction and naturalistic instruction: Adescriptive and comparative analysis. Unpublished opctoral dissertation, University ofPittsburgh, PA.Neuman, S. B., & McCormick, S. (1995). Singlesubject experimental research: Application forliteracy. Newark, DE: International ReadingAssociation.Gay, L. R. (1987). Educational research competencies for analysis and application. NewYorkiMacmillan.Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educationalresearch competencies for analysis and application (6 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall.Good, J. M. (2000). Evaluating developmentaleducation programs by measuring literacygrowth. Journal of Developmental Education,24(1), 30-36.Hersen, M., & Bariow, D. H. (1976). Single-caseExperimental Designs Strategies for StudyingBehavior Change. Elmsford, NY: PergamonPress Ltd.Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993).Strategies and tactics of behavioral research.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Kazdin, A. E. (1973). Methodological and assessmentconsiderationsinevaluatingreinforcement programs in applied settings.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6(3),517-531.Kazdin, A. E., & Kopel, S. A. (1975). On resolving ambiguities of the multiple-baselinedesign: problems and recommendations.Behavior Therapy, 6, 601-608.Kucera, J., & Alexrod, S. (1995). Multiple-baseline designs. In S. B. Neuman and S.McCormick(Eds.), Single-subject experimental research: Application for literacy.Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Leedy, P. D., & Ellis-Ormrod, J. (2001). Practicalresearch: Planning and design (1 " ed). UpperSaddle River, NJ: Merrill.Parsonson, B. S., & Baer, D. M. (1978). The analysis and presentation of graphic data. In T. R.Kratochwill (Ed.), Single-subject research (pp.101-165). New York: Academic Press.Poling, A., & Grossett, G. (1986). Basic researchdesigns in applied behavior analysis. In A. Poling and R. W. Fuqua (Eds.), Research methodsin applied behavior analysis: Issues andadvances (pp. 7-27). New York: Plenum Press.Richards, S. B., Taylor, S. B., Ramasamy, R., &Richards, R. Y. (1999). Single-subjectresearch: Applications in educational and clinical settings. San Diego, CA: Singular.Schloss, P. J., & Smith, M. A. (1998). Appliedbehavior analysis in the classroom (2''" ed.).Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Swanson, H. L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2000). A metaanalysis of single-subject design interventionresearch for students with learning disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(2), 114166.Wolery, M., & Gast, D. (2000). Classroomresearch for young children with disabilities:Assumptions that guided the conduct ofresearch. Topics in Early Childhood SpecialEducation, 20(1), 49-55.Wolf, M. M., & Risely, T. R. (1971). Reinforcement: Applied research. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Thenature of reinforcement (pp. 310-325). NewYork: Academic Press.
Multiple Baseline Designs./225Figure 1A multiple baseline across subjects design showing the effects of the independentvariable repeated readings on the dependent variable amount of correct wordsper minute for various passages.90-BaselineRepeated Readings 80-70 605040302010-Tom0Sue70 60 50-40 3020-Eric10 0Sessions
Multiple Baseline Designs Multiple baseline designs provide a means for collecting multiple sets of data in a single-case experimental design (Neu-man & McCormick, 1995). Kucera and Axelrod (1995) state multiple baseline designs are "particularly well-suited to lit-eracy research" (p. 47). The authors also maintain that multiple baseline .
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Introduction In this unit we shall try to know about Aristotle and his life and works and also understand about the relationship between Criticism and Creativity. We shall see how criticism is valued like creative writings. We shall know the role and place given to 'the critic' in the field of literary criticism.
