Hawaii's Marine Fisheries: Some History, Long-term Trends, And Recent .

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Hawaii's Marine Fisheries:Some History, Long-term Trends, and Recent DevelopmentsSAMUEL G. POOLEYIntroductionRecently Hawaii's commercial ma rine fishery has experienced a periodof rapid growth and structural change,and its characteristics are quite differ ent from what they were a decade ago.Some of these changes are the result ofgovernmental and private-sector deci sions on fishery development in Ha waii, but many have occurred becauseof increasingly competitive pressures,particularly as they have affected main land U.S. commercial fishing fleets.Further changes are anticipated as di verse fishing interests (including bothlarge-scale and small-scale commer cial, indigenous, and recreational fish ing interests, as well as nonconsump tive marine resource interests) areworked out in fishery, marine, andSamuel G. Pooley is with the Honolulu Labora tory, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Na tional Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2570Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396.ABSTRACT - This paper provides anoverview ofHawaii's marine fisheries fromJ948 to the present. After three decades ofdecline following a brief period of growthat the conclusion to World War lJ, Hawaii'scommercial fisheries began a decade ofsustained development in the J980's. Atthe same time, fisheries management is sues became more significant as differentsegments of the fishery came into moredirect competition. This paper providesnew estimates of commercial landings forthe J977-90 period, and summarizes lim ited information on recreational and sub sistence fisheries in the J980's. Jt alsoprovides some historical context which maybe useful in evaluating fishery develop ment and management options.55(2), J993coastal zone management processes.This paper concentrates on the eco nomic development of the offshorecommercial fishery, and places some what greater emphasis on the large scale fisheries. Biological and manage ment features of Hawaii's marine fish eries are considered in other papers inthis number (Mar. Fish. Rev. 55(2)).Hawaii's marine fisheries can be di vided into three geographical areas(Fig. 1):1) The inhabited main Hawaiian Is lands (MHI), with their surroundingreefs and offshore banks (the island ofHawaii to Niihau and Kauai);2) The Northwestern Hawaiian Is lands (NWHI), a 1,200 mile string ofbasically uninhabited reefs, shoals, andislets ranging west northwest from themain Hawaiian Islands (i.e., west ofNiihau and Kauai);3) The mid-North Pacific Ocean,ranging from lat. 40 N to the Equator,and from long. 145 W to long. l7YE.Hawaii's fishing fleets can also bedivided into three somewhat overlap ping or interconnected segments:1) Large-scale commercial fishing.Although termed "large-scale" inHawaii, by mainland U.S. and foreignfishing fleet standards almost all thevessels in this segment would be con sidered small. Most "large-scale" com mercial fishing vessels in Hawaii areless than 100 feet in overall length.These include the older aku boats (pole and-line sampans 1 fishing for skipjack0IThe term "sampan" in Hawaii refers primarilyto wooden-hulled fishing craft of a design in troduced by Japanese fishermen in the early1900's. The vessels range from 35 to 75 feetwith a flared bow, a low stem, and a deep profileto maintain seaworthiness in Hawaii's roughwaters.Table 1.-List of common and scientific names offrequently caught commercial species in Hawaii.Common daiUkuLehiYellowtail kalekaleTaapeScientific nameEtelis coruscansPristipomoides filamentosusE. carbunculusP. seiboldiiP. zonatusAprian virescensAphareus rutilansP. auricillaLutjanus kasmiraGrouperHapuupuuEpinephelus quernusJacksWhite uluaBlack uluaButaguchiKahalaC.lugubrisPseudocaranx dentexSeriola dumeriliOtherLobsterSpinySlipperCaranx ignobilisPanu/irus marginatusScyl/arides squammosusPelagic Management Unit SpeciesBlue marlinMakaira mazaraStriped marlinTetrapturus audaxBroadbill swordfishXiphias gladiusT. anguslirostrisShortbill spearfishM. indicaBlack marlinIndo-Pacific sailfishIsliophorus platypterusMahimahiCoryphaena hippurusOno (wahoo)Acanthocybium solandriBlue sharkMako shark (short-fin)Mako shark (long-fin)Oceanic whitetip sharkThresher sharkPrionace glaucaIsurus oxyrinchusI. paucusCarcharhinus long/manusAlopias superciliosusTiger sharkGaleocerdo cuvieriTunasBigeye TunaYellowfin tunaAlbacoreSkipjack tuna (Aku)KawakawaFrigate tunasThunnus obesusT. albacaresT. alalungaKatsuwonus pelamisEuthynnus allin/sAuxis spp.tuna 2) (Table 1) and tuna longline sam pans (also wooden but of a differentdesign), as well as modem tuna andswordfish longline vessels, distant-wa 2Hawaii common names for commercial marinefish and shellfish species are used throughout thispaper. Scientific names and corresponding Ha waii, names are found in Table 1.7

D L.I'I\,rLl.STERNHANCOCKHAW IIAN ISLANDS- ""::"" - 1--,"'6,.,S E A'tM O UN T'.:'S'---M IN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS- FREN 'iiFRIGATESHOALS--J -t-- - 1 - - - - - 30',\.!'jECKER I.",,'"" ",.,',·NIHOAKAUAINIIHAU ' .KAUL;' cOAHU'i!;. ?LOKAI r 'MAUI----- -20'SCALE:HAWAII:150 MILES TO THE INCH!lao'170'165'Figure I.-Hawaii map, includingter albacore trollers, and multipurposevessels which fish for bottomfish(deepwater snappers, groupers, andjacks) and spiny and slipper lobster inthe NWHI. These vessels can operateas far as 1,000 nautical miles fromHawaii throughout the mid-North Pa cific, and some span the South Pacific.Most operate within 200 miles of theMHI or within the NWHI.2) Small-scale commercial fishing.The vessels in this segment includea wide variety of trailered and mooredboats between 12 and 45 feet in length.These vessels primarily use trolling andhandline techniques, although sometraps and surrounding nets are used.The target species include tunas, bill fish, mahimahi, ono (wahoo), bottom fish for the trollers and handliners;bottomfish, reef fish, and crustaceansfor the trap vessels; and small mid water scads (known locally as akuleand opelu) for the surrounding-net fish ery. These vessels operate almost ex clusively in the MHI.3) Small-scale recreational, part-time8161 W 160'155'WHI.commercial, and subsistence fishing.This segment includes the same kindof vessels as found in the small-scalecommercial fleet, as well as some verysmall boats (including surf boards andsail boards), charter fishing boats anddive fishing boats. Although charterfishing is a commercial operation, itsclients are oriented toward recreationalopportunities and thus it is distin guished from commercial fishing. Thetarget species for this segment of thefishery are more v'aried than those ofthe commercial segments, and includea variety of reef species, as well as themore familiar tunas, billfish, mahimahiand ono (wahoo), bottomfish, and crus taceans. The fishing methods used arealso considerably more varied.The issue of categorizing Hawaii'ssmall-boat fisheries is a difficult one,and is discussed later in this paper. Forthe moment we would categorize thissegment as one where the fishery haslimited fishing power and its fisher men have mixed motivations in termsof fishing activity.Hawaii's Traditional CommercialMarine FisheriesShortly after Statehood, a U.S. De partment of Interior, Bureau of Com mercial Fisheries proposal labeled theHawaii fishery as "dying" (lversen 3).Hawaii's major commercial fisherieshad been dominated by traditional prac tices that reflected Hawaii's Japaneseimmigrant heritage and its impact onthe local fishery and seafood markets.The predominant commercial fisherywas aku (skipjack tuna), which wascaught by a live-bait, pole-and-line,wooden sampan fleet, known as akuboats (Fig. 2), and which was landedprimarily for canning. In 1960, over60% of Hawaii's total recorded com mercial fishery landings (by weight)was aku, and the percentage remainedover 50% until 1970.By the mid-1970's the number ofaku boats and their companion sam 3R. T, B. Iversen, 45-626 Halekou Place,Kaneohe, HI 96744, Personal commun., 1991.Marine Fisheries Review

Table 2.-Hawaii commerciallisheries, 1990. NMFSestimates based on logbooks and shoreside moni·toring. MHI main Hawaiian Islands; NWHI North·western Hawaiian Islands.Weight65 to 80 feetFigure 2.-Drawing of typical Hawaii aku (skipjack tuna pole-and-line) boat.l 45 to 65 feetFigure 3.-Drawing of typical Hawaii flagline (longline sampan) ineTroll and handlinepelagicsAku boatMHI bottomfishNWHI bottomlishNWHI lobsterOther13,09012,200 850,388ings. The average annual variation indetrended aku landings was 164%(compared with 27% for non-aku land ings) in the period 1948-90. 7 Anyanalysis of the overall Hawaii com mercial fishery over time must differ entiate the overall trend from thesefluctuations in the aku fishery.Aku landings declined through themid-1970's to the closing of the can nery in 1984, and then continued tofall through 1990. Aku landings fell asa percentage of total landings (byweight) from over 70% in the 1960'sto less than 20% in the last five yearsof the 1980's, and to only 4.5% in1990. However aku revenue has notfallen as appreciably because of thehigher market price of fresh aku (com pared with the cannery price in thepre-1985 period).pans, the longline tuna boats (knownlocally as flagline boats, Fig. 3), haddecreased substantially, and the condi tion of many of the boats was poor.Fishing remained close to the mainHawaiian islands, although some olderbottomfish boats fished the NWHI.Volume of fish in the fresh fish markethad declined, and few improvementsin marketing were apparent. Most freshseafood appeared to be consumed inthe home, and ethnic identification withparticular species was very strong.Nearshore reef and schooling fish werestill relatively abundant, but Hawaii'scommercial fishery reached its nadirin 1975. 4Figures 4 and 5 provide estimates ofHawaii's long-term commercial fish ing landings and revenue. s Revenuesthroughout this paper are inflation-ad justed values to a 1990 base year. Fig ures on landings and revenue for theperiod 1948-76 are based entirely onthe Hawaii Division of Aquatic Re sources (HDAR) commercial fishinglandings reports. Figures for the pe riod 1986-90 are based largely onNMFS estimates of Hawaii's commer cial landings and on our own whole sale market monitoring program. Theperiod 1977-85 is a combination ofthe HDAR data with NMFS estimatesof particular gear types (longline andNWHI lobster).6 Table 2 provides abreakdown of the NMFS data for 1990by gear type.Figure 4 differentiates the aku boatfishery (skipjack tuna) from the rest ofthe fishery (identified as "non-aku")because the aku fleet has been thesource of most annual variation in land The nature and value of Hawaii'spresent day fisheries and seafood in dustry have changed dramatically sincethe 1970's. The commercial fishery hasmore than doubled in inflation-adjustedex-vessel value since 1970 to 50 mil lion in 1990 and 60 million in 1991.The seafood market is probably worthover 100 million (including importedseafood), there is a 10-15 million char 4In terms of inflation-adjusted revenue. Thelowest landings were in 1969 using NMFS esti mates, but 1975 was the second lowest year.5Estimates are required because official recordsof commercial fisheries landings were not com prehensive in some years during that period.6Appendix A, available from the author, pro vides additional detail on the NMFS estimatesfor the period 1979-90, as well as time-seriesfor individual gear types (aku boat, longline,NWHI lobster, NWHI bottomfish, main Hawai ian Islands, and other gears) from 1948 to 90.7Detrending is a simple statistical procedure toremove the long-term change (growth or de cline) in a time series. The resulting figuresthen reflect more accurately the shorter-termvariation, in this case, the year-to-year varia tion, in the 1948 to 1990 time period.55(2), 1993Major Developments Sincethe Mid-1970's9

25,000 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - .- - TO;::la:.cI -o-----'A:.::k:.::u'-- - x---'N.:.,:o:.:.:n -:.cAk::cu -- 6519701975198019851990Figure 4.-Hawaii commercial fishery landings (pounds), 1948-90. NMFS estimates, total,aku (skipjack tuna), and all other species.80.000 -,---,------: ---,-------,Inflation-adjusted to current year CPI Aku Baal-0-All Olher Gears -x- Tolal60,000Ulo940,000oW20,000Figure 5.-Hawaii commercial fishery revenue, 1948-90. NMFS estimates, total, aku boat(pole-n-line skipjack tuna), and all other gears. Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990U.S. base.ter boat industry, probably an equiva lently valued tournament fishery, andthere is a recreational and subsistencemarine fishery with direct expendituresof 24 million. 8 Figure 6 displays ourestimate of the Hawaii seafood marketsupply in 1990, with 20 million pounds( 50 million) from commercial fish ing, 9 million pounds from recreationalfishing, 15 million pounds ( 30 mil lion) from foreign imports, 24 millionpounds ( 45 million) from the main land U.S., and 3.5 million pounds ( 10million) exported. 9Perhaps the most notable long-termtrend in Hawaii's overall commercial10fishery is the dramatic increase in in flation-adjusted ex-vessel revenue inthe 1980's (Fig. 5). The increase inrevenue (240%), which is reflected in8The definition and determination of "value"for recreational and subsistence fisheries is acomplex methodological issue. Direct compari son of the expressed dollar values of commer cial vs. recreational fisheries is generally notappropriate; see Edwards (1990) for a primeron these issues. Meyer (footnote 20) estimatedthe nonmarket value of small-boat noncommer cial fishing in Hawaii at 200 million, usinghedonic valuation methods, compared to actualdirect expenditures of 24 million.9Hawaii's seafood marketing sector is describedin: J. C. Cooper and S. G. Pooley. 1982. Totalseafood volume in Hawaii's wholesale fishthe increased value of the marketingsector, is even greater than the increasein pounds landed (200%), although lessthan the increase in non-aku landings(300%). The increase in average ag gregate price reflects a substantiallygrowing demand, particularly in therestaurant and export (U.S. mainlandand foreign) markets, more than match ing the increased supply for most spe cies during the period.There are many elements to theserecent changes in Hawaii's seafood in dustry. Perhaps the first harbinger ofchange was the arrival of albacore troll ers from the west coast en route tonewly discovered fishing grounds northof Midway Islands late in the 1970's.This caused a new perspective on thenature of Hawaii's role in the Pacific wide fishery and led to some substan tial changes on the Honolulu water front. Not the least of these changeswas the technological demonstrationeffect of the mere presence of thesedistant-water, highly mobile vessels 10.In 1985, there were 75 albacore troll ers in the U.S. North Pacific fishery(Hawaii Division of Aquatic Re sources, 1986). Landings peaked at 3.8million pounds, but because of logis tics, the closure of the Honolulu can nery, and the changing world tuna mar ket, Hawaii did not become the tunaprocessing and transshipment centerthat was anticipated. Eventually lessthan 20 albacore vessels chose to makeHonolulu their home port.Also in the 1980's, the Northwest ern Hawaiian Islands spiny lobster fish ery began to bloom. The NWHI possessa large EEZ but have relatively limitedfishing grounds for nonpelagic species.During a cooperative research effort ofthe NMFS, HDAR, University of Ha waii, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice in the 1970's (Grigg and Tanoue,markets. Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep.H 82-15, 12 p.; J. C. Cooper and S. G. Pooley.1983. Characteristics of Hawaii's wholesaleseafood market. Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin.Rep. H-83-22, 33 p.; W. K. Higuchi and S. G.Pooley. 1985. Hawaii's retail seafood volume.Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-85-06,16 p.; and MacDonald and Deese (1988).IOThe demonstration effect relects indirect learn ing initiated by the presence of a new technol ogy or methodology, usually introduced into aculture or a society from outside.Marine Fisheries Review

80,000 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,[J 1000 PoundsEJ 100060,00040,00020,000Commercial FishingForeign importsRecreational FishingU.S. Mainland "imports"Figure 6.-Hawaii seafood market shares, 1990. NMFS estimates.10,000 , - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - , Pounds (Whole weight)- 0 - Revenue ,Adjusted for inflation)8,0006,0004,0002,0001977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 19841 851986 1987 1988 1989 1990Figure 7.-NWHI lobster landings, pounds and revenue, 1977-90. NMFS estimates andfigures. Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. base.1984), scientists discovered substan tial quantities of spiny lobster in theNWHI. By the mid-1980's, with theadditional discovery of slipper lobster,NWHI lobster was one of Hawaii'slargest fisheries in terms of ex-vesselrevenue (Fig. 7). To develop the lob ster fishery, new fishermen and newboats came to Hawaii, primarily fromthe Pacific Northwest (Fig. 8). Largevessels, some over 100 feet in length,with advanced technology freezingand processing equipment, entered thefishery. New traps were introducedfrom California which made fishing not55(2), 1993only more efficient but also allowed theslipper lobster to be caught commercially.Although the first lobsters were soldlocally as a live product, soon almostall were produced as a frozen tail prod uct and sold to mainland U.S. buyers.This was the first premium product ofHawaii's new commercial fisheries,with prices ranging up to 13.50 perpound for the tails. However, neitherthe albacore nor the lobster fisherychanged the basic structure of the Ha waii fresh fish market.The NWHI also proved to be a goodlocation for bottom fishing (mecha nized "handline" fishing for snappers,groupers, and jacks), which required amedium-scale modem fishing vessel(Fig. 9) similar to those used in thelobster and albacore fisheries. The ex panding supply of pink and red snap pers (opakapaka and onaga) locallymade possible the expansion of the res taurant market by allowing a regularand consistent supply of relatively freshfish (Fig. 10). At the same time, therestaurant market for fresh mahimahialso expanded, providing a new sourceof income for local trollers (Takenakaet aL II). Local wholesale dealers wereable to promote fresh local mahimahias a substitute for some of the largeimports of frozen mahimahi. Since bothbottom fish and mahimahi were landedfresh and sold primarily at the Hono lulu auction, this marked an importantchange in the local fishery and rein vigorated the local fresh fish market.With a much larger restaurant mar ket in Honolulu, bottomfish fishermenfrom the main Hawaiian Islands wereable to obtain premium prices for theirconsiderably fresher catch, and thuswere motivated to increase their land ings (Fig. 11). Finally, some whole sale seafood dealers began sendingopakapaka and mahimahi to the main land, establishing a distinctively Ha waiian seafood presence linked toHawaii's tourism market.In the late 1970's and early 1980'sthe traditional Hawaiian tuna handlinefisheries, known as ika shibi (lkehara I2 )and palu ahi, revived owing to fuel efficient small-scale vessels (Fig. 12).These fisheries, which targeted yellow fin and bigeye tuna (both known lo cally as ahi, along with albacore), werecentered on the Big Island (Hawaii),but much of the product at the timewas shipped to Honolulu for the res taurant market. This was a useful de "B. Takenaka, L. Toricer, S. G. Pooley, and J.C. Cooper. 1984. Recent trends in the commer cial fishery and marketing of mahimahi andono in Hawaii. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA,Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent.,Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin.Rep. H-84-9, 20 p.I2W. Ikehara. 1981. A survey of the ika-shibifishery in the state of Hawaii, 1980. U.S. Dep.Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar.Fish. Serv., South west Fish. Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish.Cent. Admin Rep. H-82-4C, lip.II.

Figure 8.-Drawing of typical NWHI lobster boat.40 to 65 feetFigure 9.-Drawing of typical NWHI bottomfish boat.velopment for the neighbor islandswhose commercial fishery appeared tobe left behind by the growth of thelarge-scale fishing fleets based in Ho nolulu. Today, there are strong localmarkets for fresh fish on the neighborislands, associated with the expansionof the tourist trade on those islands,and there is considerable "export" offresh fish to the U.S. mainland. How ever, access by handline boats to thehigher value-added market has beenlimited on account of a phenomenonknown as the "burnt tuna phenom 12enon," a condition in which the meatof handline and troll caught yellowfintuna is metabolically degraded duringfishing when not offset by rapid icing.Nonetheless, landings of tuna and otherpelagics (primarily billfish, mahimahi,and ono) by troll, handline, and mis cellaneous gears (i.e., excludinglongline and aku boat) increased byelevenfold from 1970 to 1990 (Fig. 13).In 1984 the tuna cannery HawaiianTuna Packers closed, coinciding witha period of substantial reorganizationin the multinational canned tuna in dustry. As a result, the aku boat fleetdeclined from 12 active boats in 1979(Hudgins, 1980) to just 7 active boatsin 1986, selling solely to the fresh mar ket (Boggs and Pooley, 1987; Pooleyet al. 13 ). Attempting to expand thatmarket was a major project of Stategovernment in the 1980' s (MacDonaldet aI., 1991), but current conditions inthe fishery suggest that an entirely newstart will be required, including a solu tion to the perceived bait problem andlimitations on market penetration (pri marily due to limited shelf life), if thepotential yield of the skipjack resourceis to be achieved in the future (Boggsand Pooley, 1987). Landings in the pastfive years have averaged less than 5million pounds, with only 4 full-timeaku boats active in the fishery.By the mid-1980's, the export mar ket for Hawaii's fresh bigeye tuna rosedramatically, largely as a result of mar keting efforts by major wholesale deal ers and the favorable exchange ratebetween the dollar and the yen. Thismarked the early resurgence ofHawaii's traditionallongline tuna fleet,which produces a superior-grade tunafor sashimi (raw tuna). In the late1980's, both NWHI bottomfish andlobster boats began facing lower catchrates and increased regulation, so thata number of these vessels began totransfer to the longline fi shery.In the early 1980' s, perhaps as fewas 15 vessels were fishing with longlinegear in Hawaii. Today, over 150 ves sels are in the longline fleet. Most ofthe vessels are newer and larger.Whereas the older sampans are about45 feet, the new steel-hulled vesselsrange from 65 to 115 feet (Fig. 14).Many of the older vessels have newowners and have been refurbished. Thelongline crews have been trying a num ber of different fishing strategies, fromfishing as far as 1,200 miles from Ho nolulu to fishing right off the reef, 1413S. G. Pooley, S. Teramoto, and A. C. Todoki.1988. Hawaii's aku fishery in 1986 and 1987.U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish.Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H 88-16.15 p.14Fishing off the reef provides a major fisheriesmanagement controversy. The Western PacificFishery Management Council has closed thewaters around the main Hawaiian Islands toContinuedMarine Fisheries Review

----------------,---------------,-- - Pounds4,000--0-Revenue (Adjusted for Figure 10,-NWHI bOtlomfish landings, pounds and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estima1es,Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. base.5,000- -Pounds-a- Inflation-adjusted Revenue4,0003,000Ul00S2,0001,000Fleets and Current Landings -compete with the Tskuji market in To kyo for the raw product, and local con sumers must compete with the localrestaurant trade and the export market.If we take a brief look in retrospect,in 1979 the Hawaii Fisheries Develop ment Plan predicted commercial fish eries growth to 50 million pounds in1990 and 85 million pounds in the year2000 (Department of Land and Natu ral Resources, 1979b). As one of thePlan's co-authors, I would say we failedto anticipate the likelihood and poten tial consequences of the collapse ofU.S, production of canned tuna (theclosure of the California and Hawaiicanneries, and the emphasis on purse seine tuna processing at the AmericanSamoa and Puerto Rico canneries), andthus our forecasts for skipjack and al bacore tuna landings were far afield.We also expected a rapid developmentof the oceanic shrimp fishery, but ulti mately the resource did not supportlarge-scale development (Tagami andRalston I6 ). But for ahi, NWHI lobsterand bottomfish, the projections forgrowth have been quite reasonable. Theprospects for further development inpelagics remain strong, although de velopment must now be tempered byfisheries management considerations. 17I1970197519801985Hawaii's commercial fishery ex ceeds 50 million in ex-vessel rev enues, from 22 million pounds oflandings in 1990. The longline tunaFigure II.-MHI bOtlomfish landings, pounds and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estimates,Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U,S, base.from fishing for the high-valued big eye tuna to fishing for the lower-val ued but more abundant yellowfin tuna,to long-distance fishing for swordfishdestined for export to the east coast.The new vessels deployed a new gearwhich has now become the predomi nant gear throughout the Hawaiianlongline fishing and has imposed a moratoriumon new entry into the Hawaii-based longlinefishery from 1991 through 1994 (Amendments2,4, and 5 to the Fishery Management Plan forthe Pelagic Fisheries of the Western PacificRegion, Western Pacific Regional Fishery Man agement Council, Honolulu, Hawaii 1986, asamended in 1991.)55(2), 1993longline fishery, the more efficientmonofilament mainlines stored onreels, frequently set by powered linethrowers (Kawamoto et aI. 15 ). Thegrowth of the longline fishery is de picted in Figure 15.Hawaii's market for fresh tuna (andother pelagics such as mahimahi) isnow highly competitive, with compe tition in supply from Florida to Aus tralia, The local fish market must now15K. E, Kawamoto, R, Y, Ito, R. P, Clarke, andA, Chun, 1989, Status of the Hawaiian tunalongline fishery 1987-88, U.S, Oep, Commer.,NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish, Serv., Southwest Fish.Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent.Admin, Rep. H-89-1O, 33 p,160, T. Tagami and S. Ralston, 1988. An as sessment of exploitable biomass and projectionof maximum sustainable yield for Heterocarpuslaevigatus (shrimp) in the Hawaiian Islands.U.S, Oep, Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish.Serv., Southwest Fish, Cent., Honolulu Lab.,Southwest Fish. Cent, Admin, Rep, H-88-14,22 p.17The relationship, or lack thereof, of fisherydevelopment and fishery management has beena difficult one, The Western Pacific FisheryManagement Council initially tried to bridgethe gap, but it had few resources which couldbe placed on fishery development issues. Withinthe State of Hawaii government, the two func tions exist in different departments, while withinNMFS, fishery development functions havebeen phased out since the late 1970' s exceptfor awards to private sector projects (theSaltonstall-Kennedy grants), Most State of Ha waii fishery13

A25 to 50 feet24 to 40 feet26 to 50 feetFigure l2.-Drawing of typical MHI (A) bottomfish, (B) pelagic handline, and (C) lrolling boats.fishery is the largest commercial fish ery in Hawaii, valued at 29 million.The smaller-scale troll and handlinefisheries for tuna and mixed pelagics,such as mahimahi, are next in value, atContinuedContinuedconservation aClivllies are oriented towardnearshore fisheries. The State's 1985 fisherydevelopment plan added an emphasis towardthe noncommercial sectors Hawaii's fishery andwarned: "Fisheries development can only bepromoted for those fishery resources that canwithstand increased fishing pressure withoutdamaging the integrity of the resource. . . ."(Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources, 1986).1714 7 million, while lobster, aku (skip jack tuna), and bottomfish (snappers,groupers, and jacks) are the other ma jor commercial fisheries (Table 2).While there were 15,000 boats reg istered (or documented) in Hawaii inthe 1980's, only from 7,500 to 5,000were used for fishing (Skillman andLouie l8 , Sumida, et a1. 19 ; Meyer Re sources Inc. 2o ). Less than 2,000 ves sels are presently registered forcommercial fishing and, while thereare less than 3,500 people holding com mercial fishing licenses (issued to in dividuals), most commercial fishing li cense holders make minimal record oflandings. There are perhaps only 750 500 boats that could be considered full time commercial and charter-boatfishing operations. Almost all the fish ing boats in Hawaii are less than 100feet overall; only a portion of thelongline fleet is longer than 75 feet.This mixture of small and medium sized fishing vessels has been relativelybeneficial for Hawaii's fisheries(POOley21). Large vessels can easilyoverharvest many of the nonpelagicresources while having a hard timemaking ends meet over the long run insuch limited fisheries 22 . Many of themedium-sized vessels have the ad vanced technology and mobility tomake switching between fisheries a vi able business strategy23, while at thesame time not having a strongly nega tive impact on the small-scale com mercial and recreational fishermen.Indeed, it was believed that Hawaii'soffshore pelagic fisheries, which aresubstantially less susceptible to over fishing by small and medium-sizedISR. A. Skillman and D. K. H. Louie. 1984.Inventory of U.S. vessels in the central andwestern Pacific: Phase 2-verification and clas sification. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA,

Major Developments Since the Mid-1970's . The nature and value of Hawaii's present day fisheries and seafood in dustry have changed dramatically since the 1970's. The commercial fishery has more than doubled in inflation-adjusted ex-vessel value since 1970 to 50 mil lion in 1990 and 60 million in 1991. The seafood market is probably worth

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