Economics - SAIDNA ZULFIQAR BIN TAHIR (VIKAR)
Dictionary ofEconomicsA & C Black 앫 London
First published in Great Britain in 2003Reprinted 2006A & C Black Publishers Ltd38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB P. H. Collin 2003All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproducedin any form or by any means without the permission of the publishersA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryeISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0221-3Text Production and ProofreadingHeather Bateman, Katy McAdamA & C Black uses paper produced with elemental chlorine-free pulp,harvested from managed sustainable forests.Text typeset by A & C BlackPrinted in Italy by Legoprint
PrefaceEconomics is the basis of our daily lives, even if we do not always realise it. Whetherit is an explanation of how firms work, or people vote, or customers buy, orgovernments subsidise, economists have examined evidence and produced theorieswhich can be checked against practice.This book aims to cover the main aspects of the study of economics which studentswill need to learn when studying for examinations at various levels. The book willalso be useful for the general reader who comes across these terms in the financialpages of newspapers as well as in specialist magazines.The dictionary gives succinct explanations of the 3,000 most frequently found terms.It also covers the many abbreviations which are often used in writing on economicsubjects. Entries are also given for prominent economists, from Jeremy Bentham toJohn Rawls, with short biographies and references to their theoretical works.Where necessary cross-references are given so that the reader can refer to othercomparable entries.I am grateful to the following for their valuable comments on the text: BarbaraDocherty, Lesley Brown and Jill Garner.
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AA, AA, AAA noun letters indicating that a share or bond or bank has acertain rating for reliability. The AAA rating (called the triple A rating) isgiven by Standard & Poor’s or by Moody’s Investors Service, and indicates avery high level of reliability for a corporate or municipal bond in the USA.ability to pay theory noun the theory of taxation that the level oftaxation should be related to the taxpayer’s ability to pay. Taxpayers withhigher incomes pay tax at a higher rate than those on low incomes. This is thebasis of progressive taxation. Many taxes, such as VAT, fuel tax, or sales tax,are not linked to the purchaser’s ability to pay and are therefore regressivetaxation.abscissa noun the horizontal value on a graph. The vertical value is they-value or ordinate. Also called x-value (NOTE: The plural is abscissae orabscissas.)absolute advantage, absolute cost advantage noun a situationin which a country, or sometimes a person or company, is more efficient atproducing something than its competitors (i.e. its output per input unit ishigher). This gives an advantage to established firms which can keep costslow in comparison to new entrants.absolute value noun the size or value of a number regardless of its sign.The absolute value of –62.34 is 62.34.absorption costing, absorption pricing noun the fixing of theprice of a product to include both the direct costs of production and a part ofthe overhead costs which are absorbed as well. Absorption costing followsthree stages: allocation of actual overhead costs directly to the cost centre towhich they relate; apportionment, by which common overhead costs aredivided between various cost centres in proportion to the estimated benefit toeach cost centre; absorption, by which the total costs are charged to each unitof production.ACAS abbreviation Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Serviceaccelerated depreciation noun a system of depreciation whichreduces the value of assets at a high rate in the early years to encouragecompanies to invest in new equipment, because of the tax advantages. Thisapplied in the UK until 1984: companies could depreciate new equipment at100% in the first year. The system still applies in the USA where a 5-year tax
acceleration principle2depreciation can be applied (instead of the usual 20-years) to certain types ofequipment.acceleration principle noun same as accelerator principleaccelerator coefficient noun a calculation by which the value of aninvestment increases with an increase in outputaccelerator-multiplier model noun an economic model whichincorporates both the accelerator and multiplier effect: if governmentinvestment expenditure increases this will lead to an increase in consumerdemand which itself leads to an increase in output which in turn will lead to afurther increase in investment. Also called multiplier-accelerator modelaccelerator principle noun the principle that a change in consumerdemand will have an even greater percentage change on the demand forcapital goods, so that firms produce more of a commodity when demand isrising and less when demand is falling. This has the effect of exaggeratingbooms and depressions in the economy. Also called accelerationprincipleacceptance noun the act of signing a bill of exchange to show that youagree to pay itacceptance bank noun US same as accepting houseaccepting house, acceptance house noun a firm, usually amerchant bank, which accepts bills of exchange (i.e. promises to pay them)and is paid a commission for thisaccommodatingmonetary policy, accommodatorymonetary policy noun a policy which allows money supply to increase asthe demand for money increasesaccount noun STOCK EXCHANGE the period during which shares are tradedfor credit, and at the end of which the shares bought must be paid for. On theLondon Stock Exchange, the account period is three business days from theday of trade. (NOTE: On the London Stock Exchange, there are twenty-fouraccounts during the year, each running usually for ten working days.)account day noun the day on which shares which have been bought mustbe paid for. On the London Stock Exchange the account period is threebusiness days from the day of trade. Also called settlement dayaccounting entity noun same as accounting unitaccounting period noun the period usually covered by a company’saccounts. The balance sheet shows the state of the company’s affairs at theend of the accounting period, while the profit-and-loss account shows thechanges which have taken place since the end of the previous period.accounting unit noun any unit which takes part in financial transactionswhich are recorded in a set of accounts. It can be a department, a sole trader, aPlc or some other unit.
3advanceaccruals, accrued expenses, accrued liabilities plural nounliabilities which are recorded, although payment has not yet been made (thisrefers to liabilities such as rent, rates, etc.)acid test ratio noun same as liquidity ratioacquisition noun the takeover of a company. The results and cash flowsof the acquired company are brought into the group accounts only from thedate of acquisition: the figures for the previous period for the reporting entityshould not be adjusted. The difference between the fair value of the netidentifiable assets acquired and the fair value of the purchase consideration isgoodwill.ACT abbreviation Advance Corporation Taxactivity indicator noun an indicator such as industrial production,capacity utilisation, and volume of retail sales, which shows at what stage ofthe business cycle the economy isactivity rate noun the percentage of the population of working age whoare actually in active employment. Also called economic activity rate,labour force participation rateactual growth noun the final actual result of growth in theHarrod-Domar modelactuary noun a person employed by an insurance company or otherorganisation to calculate the risk involved in an insurance, and therefore thepremiums payable by persons taking out insuranceadaptive expectations noun the theory that behaviour changesbecause of what people expect will happen: so workers ask for more paybecause they believe inflation will rise, and this increase in pay actually fuelsan increase in inflation; similarly economists will exaggerate their inflationforecasts to take into account errors they made in previous forecasts. Suchadaptive expectations always exaggerate upward or downward trends. 쏡expectations lagADB abbreviation 1. African Development Bank 2. Asian DevelopmentBankadjustable peg regime, adjustable peg system noun a system inwhich a currency is pegged to another, but with the possibility of adjusting theexchange rate from time to timeadministered price noun US same as recommended retail priceadministration noun the appointment by a court of a person to managethe affairs of a company which is in difficultiesADR abbreviation American depositary receiptad valorem tax noun a tax (such as VAT) which is calculated accordingto the value of the goods or services taxed. Compare specific taxadvance noun an amount of money paid as a loan or as a part of a paymentto be made later 쐽 adjective paid as a loan or as a part of a payment to be
Advance Corporation Tax4made later 쐽 verb to pay an amount of money to someone as a loan or as a partof a payment to be made laterAdvance Corporation Tax noun a tax (abolished in 1999) whichwas paid by a company in advance of its main corporation tax payments. Itwas paid when dividends were paid to shareholders and was deducted fromthe main tax payment when that fell due. It appeared on the tax voucherattached to a dividend warrant. Abbreviation ACTadverse selection noun the theory that bad quality goods will be morelikely to be sold than good, because some traders want to get rid of productsand buyers are not capable of judging if the quality or price is too low. Thisapplies in many commercial spheres, such as the stock market or insurance, aswell as in general trading. Three factors come into play: (i) the variable qualityof similar products on the market; (ii) the fact that buyers and sellers do notpossess the same information about the product (usually the seller knows morethan the buyer); (iii) sellers are more likely to want to get rid of bad qualityproducts than good quality products. Also called lemon problemadverse supply shock noun shock caused to an economy by asudden stoppage in the supply of raw materials or other inputs. An examplewould be the reduction in supply of oil caused by a war.advertising noun the business of announcing that something is for sale orof trying to persuade customers to buy a product or service. Heavy advertisingwill stimulate sales, but the cost will be borne eventually by the customer.Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service noun agovernment service founded in 1974 which offers facilities for companies andrepresentatives of their workforce to meet and try to solve disputes aboutmatters such as employees’ rights or union recognition. Abbreviation ACASAE abbreviation aggregate expenditureAfrican Development Bank noun a bank set up by African countriesto provide long-term loans to help agricultural development and improvementof the infrastructure. The bank now has non-African members. AbbreviationADBage-earnings profile noun a graph showing the earnings of workers atdifferent ages and in different industriesagency shop noun US a contract arrangement making it mandatory forworkers who refuse to join a union to pay the union a feeagent noun 1. a person who represents a company or another person in anarea 2. US the chief local official of a trade unionagglomeration economies plural noun economies which firmsachieve by being located in large urban areasaggregate concentration noun the proportion of production whichis in the hands of a few large companies
5American Depositary Receiptaggregate demand noun the total demand for goods and services fromall sectors of the economy (from individuals, companies, the government andexporters) during a given periodaggregate demand curve noun a curve showing aggregate demandat all price levels, from a small demand at high prices to a large demand forlower-priced goods and servicesaggregate expenditure noun the total domestic expenditure during agiven period divided according to four sectors: households (consumerexpenditure), businesses (investment expenditure), government expenditureand foreign purchasers (i.e. exports minus imports). It forms the grossdomestic product. Abbreviation AEaggregate output noun a method of calculating the national income byadding the total value added at each stage of production in manufacturingindustry, service industry and agriculture, together with property income fromabroadaggregate supply noun the total production of goods and servicesavailable to meet the aggregate demand during a given periodaggregate supply curve noun a curve showing the quantity suppliedat each price level; in the long term, supply pushes up pricesAGM abbreviation Annual General Meetingagricultural sector noun the sector of an economy formed byagriculture, forestry and fishingaid noun help given to a business or region by a governmentAIM abbreviation Alternative Investment Marketalienation noun worker dissatisfaction, the lack of a sense of fulfilmentwhen a worker cannot see any positive result of his or her workallocative efficiency noun the action of satisfying as far as is possiblecustomer demands for goods and services by pricing them at a price which isnear to the production cost while still allowing a margin to the producer. If amarket is allocatively efficient it produces the right amount of goods at theright prices for the right customers.Alternative Investment Market noun a London stock market,regulated by the London Stock Exchange, dealing in shares in smallercompanies which are not listed on the main London Stock Exchange. TheAIM is a way in which smaller companies can sell shares to the investingpublic without going to the expense of obtaining a full share listing.Abbreviation AIMalternative technology noun the use of methods to produce energywhich are different and less polluting than the usual ways (i.e. using windpower, tidal power or solar power, as opposed to traditional or nuclear power)American Depositary Receipt noun a document issued by anAmerican bank to US citizens, making them unregistered shareholders ofcompanies in foreign countries. The document allows them to receive
amortisation6dividends from their investments, and ADRs can themselves be bought orsold. Buying and selling ADRs is easier for American investors than buying orselling the actual shares themselves, as it avoids stamp duty and can be carriedout in dollars without incurring exchange costs. Abbreviation ADRamortisation, amortising noun 1. the repayment of the principal of aloan or putting money aside regularly over a period of time in order to repay itin due course 2. the act of depreciating or writing down the capital value of anasset over a period of time in a company’s accountsanalysis of variance noun a method of testing if real differences existbetween sections of a population which is being sampledAndean Pact noun a trading agreement signed in 1969 and now formedof Bolivia, Columbia. Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. Tariffs between themember countries are reduced and a system of preferences towards othermembers of the group introduced.annual allowance noun an allowance against tax which is calculatedeach year, such as annual depreciation of assetsAnnual General Meeting noun an annual meeting of all shareholdersof a company, when the company’s financial situation is presented by anddiscussed with the directors, when the accounts for the past year are approvedand when dividends are declared and audited. Abbreviation AGM (NOTE: TheUS term is annual meeting or annual stockholders’ meeting.)Annual Percentage Rate noun a rate of interest (such as on ahire-purchase agreement) shown on an annual compound basis, including feesand charges. As hire purchase agreements quote a flat rate of interest coveringthe whole amount borrowed or a monthly repayment figure, the ConsumerCredit Act, 1974, forces lenders to show the APR on documentationconcerning hire purchase agreements, so as to give an accurate figure of thereal rate of interest as opposed to the nominal rate. The APR includes variousfees charged (such as the valuation of a house for mortgage); it may also varyaccording to the sum borrowed – a credit card company will quote a lowerAPR if the borrower’s credit limit is low. Abbreviation APRannual report and accounts noun the report from the directors onthe company’s financial situation at the end of a year, together with thebalance sheet, profit and loss account, statement of source and application offunds, and the auditor’s report, all prepared for the shareholders of thecompany each yearannuity noun an amount of money paid each year to a retired person,usually in return for a lump-sum payment. The value of the annuity dependson how long the person lives, as it usually cannot be passed on to anotherperson. Annuities are fixed payments, and lose their value with inflation,whereas a pension can be index-linked. When people retire, they are requiredby law to purchase a compulsory purchase annuity with the funds accumulatedin their pension fund. This gives them a taxable income for the rest of their
7a priorilife, but usually it is a fixed income which does not change with inflation.Also called perpetuityanticipated inflation noun the rate of inflation which most peoplethink will exist at some time in the futureanti-dumping action noun action which a country takes to protectitself against dumpinganti-dumping duty noun a tax imposed by a country on importedgoods, to increase their price to a position where they do not offer unfaircompetition to locally-produced goods, especially where the price of thegoods imported includes a subsidy from the government in the country oforigin. Also called countervailing dutyanti-globalisation movement noun an umbrella organisation forseveral hundred groups of people with different aims: preservation of naturalresources, anti-exploitation of native peoples, etc. Unfortunately, themovement also contains extreme left-wing groups who use the movement as acover for extremist and violent protests. Abbreviation AGManti-trust laws, legislation plural noun laws in the USA whichprevent the formation of monopolies or price fixing and so encouragecompetitionAPACS noun an organisation set up in 1985 by British banks and buildingsocieties to manage the networks by which money is transferred between bankaccounts on behalf of customers (CHAPS and BACS). Full formAssociation for Payment Clearing ServicesAPC abbreviation average propensity to consumeAPM abbreviation average propensity to importAPP abbreviation average physical productapplied economics noun the application of economic theories to thereal world, formulated by economists as advice to plannersappreciation noun the increase in value of an asset. Also called capitalappreciationappropriate technology noun technology which is suited to the localenvironment, usually involving skills or materials which are easily availablelocally. In many parts of world, devices to help the local population cultivatethe land can be made out of simple pipes or pieces of metal. Expensivetractors may not only be unsuitable for the terrain involved, but also use fuelwhich costs more than the crops produced.appropriation account noun a part of a profit and loss account whichshows how each part of the profit has been dealt with (such as how much hasbeen given to the shareholders as dividends, how much is being put into thereserves or what proportion of the profits comes from subsidiary companies)APR abbreviation Annual Percentage Ratea priori adverb on the basis of ideas or assumptions, not of real examples
APS8APS abbreviation average propensity to savearbitrage noun the making of a profit from the difference in value ofvarious assets. Means include: selling foreign currencies or commodities onone market and buying on another at almost the same time to profit fromdifferent exchange rates; buying currencies forward and selling them forwardat a later date, to benefit from a difference in prices; buying a security andselling another security to the same buyer with the intention of forcing up thevalue of both securities.arbitrageur, arbitrager noun a person whose business is risk arbitrage.Arbitrageurs buy shares in companies which are potential takeover targets,either to force up the price of the shares before the takeover bid, or simply as aposition while waiting for the takeover bid to take place. They also sell sharesin the company which is expected to make the takeover bid, since one of theconsequences of a takeover bid is usually that the price of the target companyrises while that of the bidding company falls. Arbitrageurs may then sell theshares in the target company at a profit, either to one of the parties making thetakeover bid, or back to the company itself.arbitration noun the settlement of a dispute by the two parties concerned,using an arbitrator (an outside person chosen by both sides)arc elasticity noun a reasonably accurate method of measuring theproportional change in one variable compared with a proportionate change inanotherarithmetic average noun a number calculated by adding togetherseveral figures and dividing by the number of figures addedarithmetic progression noun a sequence of numbers with a constantdifference between them, such as 2, 5, 8, 11. Compare geometricprogressionArrow, Kenneth (1921–) American economist, winner of the NobelPrize for Economics in 1972, particularly interested in the questions ofdecision-making. He showed that a series of acceptable choices by individualsin a group will inevitably lead to the choice of one individual being dominant.Arrow’s impossibility theorem noun the theory that in a group oftwo or more it may happen that it becomes impossible to get a result frommajority voting which accurately reflects the preferences of individuals in thegroup. Either the result goes against the majority preference or it is possiblefor a single individual to make the final decision.articles of partnership plural noun same as partnershipagreementASEAN abbreviation Association of Southeast Asian NationsA shares plural noun ordinary shares with limited voting rights or no rightto vote at all. A company may be set up with two classes of share: A shares,which are available to the general investor, and B shares which are onlybought by certain individuals, such as the founder and his or her family. Suchdivision of shares is becoming less usual nowadays.
9auditorAsian Development Bank noun a bank set up by various Asiancountries, with other outside members, to assist countries in the region withmoney and technical advice. Abbreviation ADBasset noun a thing which belongs to company or person, and which has avalue. A company’s balance sheet will show assets in various forms such ascurrent assets, fixed assets and intangible assets. An individual’s assets willinclude items such as his or her house, car, and clothes.asset-backed securities plural noun shares which are backed by thesecurity of assetsassets revaluation reserve noun an amount of money from profitsnot paid as dividend, but kept back by a company to be used when thecompany’s assets are revaluedasset stripping noun the buying of a company at a lower price than itsasset value, and then selling its assetsassisted area noun area of a country which is given aid by thegovernment to under European Union legislation. They have unemploymentlevels higher than the norm in the European Union and the aid is aimed atincreasing employment are given to companies, sole traders or partnershipsfor capital expenditure (not general jobs which otherwise would be at risk.Currently the areas are being reduced because Britain’s unemployment level islower than the European Union average.Association of Southeast Asian Nations noun an organisationformed originally in 1967 to promote economic growth, social andeducational development and general stability in Southeast Asia. The currentmembers are: Brunei, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Abbreviation ASEANassurance noun an agreement that in return for regular payments, acompany will pay compensation for loss of life, or will make a payment if theinsured person lives to a certain age. Also called life assurance, lifeinsuranceasymmetric information noun a situation which exists in allcountries where all the consumers, suppliers and producers do not have thesame information on which to base their decisionsATM abbreviation automated telling machineatomistic competition noun same as perfect competitionauction noun a method of selling goods in which people offer bids, and theitem is sold to the person who makes the highest offer. Another form is theDutch auction where the seller names a high price and gradually reduces ituntil someone makes a bid. 쐽 verb to sell goods at auctionaudit noun the examination of the books and accounts of a company 쐽 verbto examine the books and accounts of a companyauditor noun a person, firm or partnership which audits books andaccounts. Audits can be external, that is independent from the company, or
auditors’ qualification10internal, that is members of staff who examine a company’s internal controls.External auditors are appointed by the company’s directors and voted by theAGM. In the USA, audited accounts are only required by corporations whichare registered with the SEC, but in the UK all limited companies must provideaudited annual accounts if they exceed the size criteria for audit exemption.auditors’ qualification noun a form of words in a report from theauditors of a company’s accounts, stating that in their opinion the accounts arenot a true reflection of the company’s financial position and profit or loss forthe year. Also called qualification of accountsauditors’ report noun a report written by a company’s auditors afterthey have examined the accounts of the company (if they are satisfied, thereport certifies that, in the opinion of the auditors, the accounts give a true andfair view of the company’s financial position)Austrian school noun a school of economic study at the University ofVienna during the later part of the 19th century under Menger, whichemphasised the concept of utility – i.e. the pleasure derived by the consumerfrom the product, as opposed to the value concepts of production and supply.Later Austrian economists developed the theory of interest and capital.authorised capital noun the maximum capital which is permitted by acompany’s articles of associationautocorrelation noun same as serial correlationautomated teller machine noun a machine which gives out cashwhen a special card is inserted and special instructions given. AbbreviationATMautomatic stabilisers plural noun changes in government spending orin government tax revenue which are not caused by policy decisions, but byevents such as the rise in unemployment during a recession which increasesgovernment spending on benefits, and at the same time decreases taxationrevenue. Also called built-in stabilisersautomation noun the use of machines to do work with very littlesupervision by peopleautonomous consumption, autonomous expenditure nounnational consumption expenditure which does not vary with national income,but which represents expenditure which is necessary to maintain a basicstandard of living even when personal incomes are zero. It is not related to theGDP, but can have an effect on the economy.autonomous investment noun investment which is not related toincreases or decreases in national income or in ouput, but which may be due tofactors such as changes in government policy or the response to newinventionsAVC abbreviation average variable cost
11average variable costaverage noun the sharing of the cost of damage or loss of a ship betweenthe insurers and the owners 쐽 adjective representing the total number dividedby the number of units 쐽 verb to reach or calculate an average figureaverage cost noun the total cost of production divided by the number ofunits producedaverage cost pricing noun the setting of a price which is equivalent tothe average cost of the product, so covering marginal costs and fixed costs andallowing the producer to break evenaverage fixed costs plural noun costs calculated by dividing the totalfixed costs by the number of units produced. The cost per unit falls with thenumber of units produced.average income per capita noun same as per capita incomeaverage physical product, a
Economics is the basis of our daily lives, even if we do not always realise it. Whether it is an explanation of how firms work, or people vote, or customers buy, or governments subsidise, economists have examined evidence and produced theories which can be checked against practice.
5 1 2 T 4 The alignment of the joints shown above is an average position. You can adjust them later to make them more comfortable. Line up the post on the middle joint with the middle of the lever on the foot joint.
peta kedudukan modul materi dan perubahan lambang unsur dan persamaan reaksi . ikatan kimia dan tatanama redoks pencemaran lingkungan konsep mol hidrokarbon dan minyak bumi senyawa karbon thermokimia elektrokimia kesetimbangan laju reaksi larutan asam basa polimer kimia lingkungan . modul kim. 03. struktur atom dan sistem periodik ix
The Brand Equity Concept 37 Strategic Brand Management Process 38. Identifying and Establishing Brand Positioning 38 Planning andImplementing Brand Marketing Programs 39 Measuring and Interpreting Brand Performance 40 Growing and Sustaining Brand Equity 41 Review 42 Discussion Questions 42 Bran
The Project Hand-off Method 17 Dragan Z. Milosevic, Russ J. Martinelli, and James M. Waddell CHAPTER 2 CULTURAL ASPECTS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 19 Engineering Culture at Beck 21 Dragan Z. Milosevic, Peerasit Patanakul, and Sabin Srivannaboon The Jamming 26 Dragan
English language - Grammar - Study and teaching (Tertiary). 2. English language - Grammar - Problems, exercises, etc. I. Title. 428.207. iii . Teaching strategies for the contemporary classroom 8 Practical suggestions 14 Part II The parts of speech Introduction 21 1 Nouns 22 Common nouns 22 Proper nouns 23
BAB II : KONSEP SISTEM PENGENDALIAN MANAJEMEN Dalam bab ini diuraikan tentang latar belakang dan perkembangan sistem pengendalian, pengertian sistem pengendalian manajemen, konsep dasar pengendalian, jenis-jenis pengendalian, dan keterbatasan suatu sistem pengendalian manajemen, serta soal latihan.
It has been reported from Ali, Ibn Abbas, Ubadah bin As-Samit, Abu Hurayrah, Shaddad bin Aws, Ibn Umar, Muhammad bin Ali bin Al-Husayn, Makhul, Bakr bin Abdullah Al-Muzani, Bukayr bin Al-Ashaj, Malik, Ibn Abi Dhi'b, and Abdul Aziz bin Abi Salamah Al-Majishun, they all said, "Ash-Shafaq is the redness (in the sky).
The American Revolution had both long-term origins and short-term causes. In this section, we will look broadly at some of the long-term political, intellectual, cultural, and economic developments in the eigh-teenth century that set the context for the crisis of the 1760s and 1770s. Between the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the middle of the eigh- teenth century, Britain had largely failed .
