GUIA DE ESTUDOS North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power promising to rebuild the heydays of Germany - forthem, the Bismarck s days - and undo the effects of the humiliating Treaty of Versailles as wellas the Big Depression. It can be concluded, then, that the German society generally supported theNazi’s political campaign and was primarily satisfied with its propaganda and ruling measures.3.4 - The Rise of Communism in the interwar periodDisbelief in the liberalist system was not the only negative consequence brought up by theGreat War: misery, hunger and lower national productivity were also some factors that hauntedthe belligerent countries during the battles and after the war came to an end. Among those deeplyaffected nations was Russia, an agrarian-exporting, scarcely industrialized country ruled by anabsolutist monarch, whose society was especially undermined by the trench warfare.In this context, an alternative to the archaic monarchical system and theoretical solution tothe social dissatisfaction was Communism, deeply described by German Karl Marx and FriedrichEngels in 1848. Left-wingers soon had social influence and the Russian Revolution started tobecome a close reality. On the Second Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Partythere were a dissention among them on how to establish an end to the Russian Empire and thebeginning of a communist nation: one group, the Mensheviks, believed in a brief bourgeois administration before a socialist government were to be installed whereas another, the Bolsheviks,defended that liberals should never rule the country. However, there was relative unity whenSocialist sympathizers (both Mensheviks and Bolsheviks), along with liberals and other interestedsocial segments destituited the tsarist regime and implemented the Russian Republic in 1917.The disagreements between Mensheviks and Bolsheviks had real consequences in October1917, when Vladimir Lenin - Marxist and outspoken opposer of the Russian Republic - leadedthe Bolsheviks and turned Russia into the Union of Socialist Soviet Republic on what was called“The October Revolution”. In 1918, a civil war enclosed between the Red Army, supporters ofthe current Leninist rule, and the White Army, representatives of anticommunism. However, thereds succeeded in maintaining their power and USSR lived - as still does - a generally strong,centralized and stable government, now, under the rule of Lenin’s successor, Josef Stalin.In spite of the capitalist countries’ containment plans against soviet regime, USSR’s success in maintaining national stability after the Revolution and Civil War, and, especially, havinghad little economic downturn after the Big Depression started to strengthen communist ideas allover the world. The ideological conflict Communism X Nazi-fascism X Liberalism was, at thetime, the main point on the international agenda.3.5 - The Molotov- Ribbentrop PactThe Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, named after, respectively, soviet and German foreignministers, is a neutrality pact between the two nations. It was signed on August 23rd 1949, eightdays before the Second World War outbreak, and followed German-Russian non-aggressiontradition established on the Treaty of Berlin (1926), Treaty of Rapallo (1922), and many othersafter the First Great War. The German–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, as it was also called, settled8

that each party would pose neutrality in case the other were involved in battles and that theywould no form alliances with the other’s rivals. Moreover, the Pact had a secret protocol thatdivided European territory between soviet and German influences, so that neither could invadeor dominate the other’s power sphere.This pact could seem useless at first, once War was a close reality and the two countrieshad been enemies longer than allies due to the Great War and its consequences. However, theagreement brought advantages since the commercial trade between the two nations could strengthen their economies as a whole after the Big Depression and the international containmentpolicy against socialism. Another factor that made this pact attractive was that it guaranteed themaintenance of influence spheres and the obstacle to the independence of satellite states, whichcould be invaded first during the Second World War.Again, it is essential to emphasize that the pact between Germany and Soviet Uniondid not mean they were political allies or sought to fight alongside during the war against theAllies. It meant that the both countries’ focus in the first battles was to maintain their influenceareas without risk of them being invaded by the other or proclaiming independence, as well aseconomic preparation to war (WEINBERG, Gehard.). In fact, many intellectuals believe that thepact was the final reassurance that Adolf Hitler needed to invade Poland and begin its expandingcampaign therefore, since Poland was protected by its alliance with France and United Kingdom,the Molotov-Ribbentrop agreement made World War II possible.3.6 - World War IIThe Second World War began officially on September 1st 1949, after Hitler’s Germanyinvaded Poland seeking their Lebensraum (according to the Nazi propaganda, the space necessaryto proper development of a strong, self-sufficient nation). Much like World War I, this conflictgained a global scope due to the alliances mechanisms in which Poland and Germany were inserted.Poland was supported by United Kingdom and France, which soon declared war against Germany.The Germans had the advantage of being incredibly well prepared in terms of militaryequipment, men and strategy. They started the Blitzkrieg (a fast domination war method) which,combined with the Axis alliance formation - with Japan, that intended to dominate Asia and hadbegun war on the continent yet in the beginning of the decade, and Italy - led to the tendency ofvictory. However, the Allied forces gained power when Union of Socialists Soviet Republic andUnited States of America joined the War in 1941, once Germany broke Molotov-Ribbentrop pactby invading USSR territory and Japan bombed American naval base Pearl Harbor.9

Battle results started to turn and the Allies began to have decisive successes, such as inthe Battle of the Eastern Solomons, in Burma, in Stalingrad and many others. In 1943, the Alliesinvaded Italian territory and Italy surrendered. On June 6th 1944, with the Normandy Invasion,the Allies liberated French territory from the Nazis and prepared to invade Germany. In May1945, the Russians reached Berlin and Hitler committed suicide. The War was practically wonby the Allies, and in August, Japan surrendered after the bomb-dropping in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After six years and 50 million deaths, war had finally ended.4 - The Potsdam conference and post-war consensusWith the aim of splitting the German territory between the winning countries of theWorld War II and tracing the future of Germany, the conference took place in the Cecilienhofcastle in Potsdam. The meeting counted with President Roosevelt (later in 1945 replaced byPresident Truman), Prime Minister Winston Churchill (who was replaced by his successorClement Attlee), Josef Stalin and their following teams.In the first week of the conference outside of the Cecilienhof were held concerts, whileinside the three parties held dinners in different nights in order to celebrate their victory againstAdolf Hitler’s Germany. Entering what was called the second phase of the negotiations noother commemorative events occurred. All three leaders were now working only towards thenew perspective for the damaged country.The goal was to find the most equal division possible (see Annex I), once Germany’sstrength or unity could lead once again to war, and also because the country’s fate as to whether become a capitalist or socialist influenced territory had not been decided yet. The capitalBerlin was too divided, since it would have been, at first, entirely on the socialist party.Potsdam was the first decisive moment of the long lasting Cold War, a bipolar eramarked within the Allied victory in the Second World War not with numerous military battles,but rather with intense geopolitical tension and competition between United States of Americaand the Union of Socialists Soviet Republic.5 - Soviet-American relations post WWII1945. Between April and November, all of the countries that were part of the Axis officially surrendered and subsequently stopped taking part in the war. Later that year the countriesconsidered the major winners of the War - the Republic of China, France, the Union of SovietSocialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the UnitedStates of America - became Permanent Members of the United Nations Security Council, meaning that they had the veto power. By 1960, out of 73 vetoes to resolutions by the UNSC, theUSSR was the only country responsible for 71 of them. This fact introduces how opposing wasSoviet Union’s and United States’ foreign policy.10

In 1946, Winston Churchill, UK’s Prime Minister delivered a speech that was responsiblefor the propagation of the term “Iron Curtain” to describe the World’s political context at themoment - the segregation between East and West. Later on, Churchill also criticized the ascension of communism and, subsequently, of the soviet influence in Europe. The criticism was notwell-received by Stalin, that defined his speech as a “dangerous act, calculated to sow the seedsof dissension among the Allied States and impede their collaboration”. Despite being deliveredby a British politician, the content of the speech was consensus between the Allied Powers.Many historians argue that the Cold War officially started right after Churchill’s speech,for the foreign affairs between the major East and West countries started to become progressivelyworse and unstable. After that episode, the tension was constant in the World.Being the leaders of the Capitalist and the Socialist blocs during a period of ideologicaldichotomy, the USA and the USSR, respectively, were natural enemies. Their main concern atthe time was to gain power and influence over the world, using political and economic ideologiesas a tool. A proxy war is defined as “a war instigated by a major power which does not itselfbecome involved” (PROXY WAR, 2018). During that period, an impressive amount of proxywars was started due to ideological reasons and were encouraged, supported and aided by thosetwo powers, e.g. the Congo Crisis (1960-1965) and the Suez Crisis (1956-1957).6 - Germany Occupied (1945-49)In February 1945, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Josef Stalin had a meeting in the city of Yalta to discuss what would be done after the certain Axis defeat. Among othertopics, they agreed on dividing Germany in 4 areas that would be occupied by the United States,the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union. Berlin, the capital, that was geographicallylocated in an area that would be under USSR’ domain, would also be divided between those 4powers, becoming an enclave.While occupied by the countries that belonged to the Western Bloc, Germany experiencedmany political and economic measures that aimed to reconstruct the country, bringing peace andorder, after a long period of war. Even though the Western occupation was somewhat troubled attimes, the Allied Powers sought to prevent the local population from suffering in an oppressiveregime once again. Therefore, those countries attempted to secure food, housing and work tothe civilians within the areas that were under their domain.With 3 of the 4 countries being part of the Capitalist Bloc, the areas occupied by thoseeventually became more integrated economically but stayed as separate political entities for a while.11

6.1 - The Berlin Blockade of 1948In June 1948, France, USA and UK stated that they had plans to combine their forcesand merge their zones of influence together, founding a new country: the Federal Republic ofGermany. A couple of weeks later, those powers took a concrete measure on the creation of thenew country: they announced a new currency that was meant to be implemented in West Germany - the Deutschmark. Unsatisfied with the course of events, Josef Stalin decreed the so-calledBerlin Blockade. He cut off all transit between West Berlin and West Germany.Stalin’s imposition did not please the Western countries, that had their civilians’ healthand well-being threatened, considering that with the Blockade, West Berlin had no access tobasic supplies, such as water and food.As an immediate response, the Western Countries decided to use airways to provideessential items to West Berlin.“The administration calculated that if the Soviets opposed the airlift with force,it would be an act of aggression against an unarmed humanitarian mission andthe violation of an explicit agreement. Thus, the onus of igniting a conflictbetween the former allies would be on the aggressor”. (US’ OFFICE OF THEHISTORIAN).Concerned with the humanitarian situation, the West tried to engage in a more diplomaticand peaceful solution. In order to drop the Blockade, the Soviets wanted the West to withdraw theDeutschmark. An agreement was not reached due to conflicting political and economic interests.“Even though the Allies rebuffed the Soviet offer, West Berlin’s position remained precarious, and the standoff had political consequences on the ground.In September 1948, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), the GermanCommunist Party of the Soviet zone of occupation, marched on the Berlin CityCouncil and forced it to adjourn. Fearing that the Western Allies might halt theairlift and cede West Berlin to the Soviets, 300,000 West Berliners gatheredat the Reichstag to show their opposition to Soviet domination. The turnoutconvinced the West to keep the airlift and the Deutschmark.” (US’ OFFICEOF THE HISTORIAN)As a result, the West strengthened its airlift, making it more efficient and fast.Seeking even more effective measures, the Western countries founded a new international organization, based on principles of collective defence. It means that if one of the Membersis attacked, it shall be considered as an attack to all of them. This organization was called theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization.On May 11, 1949 - two weeks after NATO’s creation - noticing that the West was ableto find a solution to any inconvenience imposed by the Soviets, Stalin lifted the Blockade.12

7 - Germany Divided (1949-61)After WWII, the land occupied and dominated in battle by Germany was taken, as wellas some German territories in the East, which were lost to the Soviet Union and Poland. Thisprovoked generalized chaos in a post-war context. Millions of citizens who either returned toGermany as former political refugees, had recently been released from concentration camps,or had just lost their status as of prisoners of war, virtually, had nowhere to go. This instabilitywould be prolonged until 1949, with the ascent of two central states: the Federal Republic ofGermany and the German Democratic Republic.Firstly, at the Potsdam Conference, Germany was broken up into four military zones:France in the southwest, Britain in the northwest, the United States in the south, and the SovietUnion in the east. Areas that were occupied by the German Reich but weren’t originally part ofthe German territory were returned to Poland and the Soviet Union. All of the land expansionof the former German empire was nullified by the Berlin Declaration (1945).German war refugees, many of whom were expelled from Poland and Czechoslovakia,were heavily mistreated, forced into labour camps and ultimately deported back to Germany,had they not died of hunger or disease beforehand. Around 8 million settled in West Germany,while another 3 million settled in East Germany.The German government was called Allied Control Council. Each commander-in-chief actedupon their designated area, while decisions concerning the whole country were discussed collectively.Berlin, which was located in the Soviet zone, was broken up into four parts: Western sectors wouldthen become West Berlin, while the Soviet sector would become East Berlin. The United States hadto give up Thuringia and Saxony in order to get Soviets to comply to western presence in the capital.On May 23rd 1949, the western Allies formed the Federal Republic of Germany, withBonn as the capital. On October 7th 1949, the German Democratic Republic was formed, withEast Berlin as the capital. In 1952, the Stalin Note proposed the reunification of Germany, butwas rejected and deemed as insincere by the western Allies.7.1 - West GermanyPopularly known as West Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany corresponded tomost of the original territory of Germany and was under ultimate influence of the Allies. Thus,all of its domestic features and policies modeled what was practiced in the West: the economywas strictly capitalist, operating under a free market dominated by the western Allied potencies.With the Petersburg agreement, on November of 1949, it became increasingly sovereignand aligned with the western Allies. Furthermore, the London and the Paris Conferences of 1954allowed its entrance into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), ratifying its associationwith the west. It also joined France, Italy and the Benelux countries in the European Coal andSteel Community, which would later become the European Union.13

West German economy experienced rapid growth. The “Wirtschaftswunder” (economic miracle) was brought upon by low inflation rates and growing export rates. The millionsof IDPs and refugees were integrated into the workforce, dropping unemployment to virtuallyzero. Hence, this inspired thousands to flee the GDR towards the West in search of jobs, whichwould become a huge problem to East Germany.In the 50s, there was a growing rhetoric of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (“coming toterms with the past”), advanced by the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno, who claimed mostpeople were in a process of “willful forgetting” the Nazi era. He also made use of euphemisticlanguage when referring to Nazi acts (like calling the attack against Jewish stores in 1938“Crystal Night”) as a mean to sugarcoat them.7.2 - East GermanyAfter the election of the Socialist Unity Party (SED), which emerged from th

the North Atlantic Treaty Organization seeks the maintenance of peace, justice, democracy and security through nonmilitary - however, when necessary, military - means. NATO represents the transatlantic link between the security of North America and Europe. It provides forums where any member may raise issues, as well as require further