Sustainability Whitepaper Hydrogen As Marine Fuel
SUSTAINABILITY WHITEPAPERHYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELJUNE 2021 baivector/Shutterstock
TABLE OF CONTENTSOVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Hydrogen as Fuel for the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Hydrogen as Marine Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4HYDROGEN SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Characteristics of Hydrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Storage and Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9REGULATORY COMPLIANCE CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12IMO Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12International Regulations and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13National Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13ABS Rules on Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Concept Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Vessel Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Fuel Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Fuel Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Prime Movers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Venting and Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Bunkering Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19ONGOING RESEARCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Industry Pilot Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Hydrogen Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Projected Role of Hydrogen as Marine Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ABS SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27APPENDIX I- REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28APPENDIX II- LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Pi-Lens/Shutterstock
HYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELOVERVIEWOBJECTIVEThe International Maritime Organization (IMO) set ambitious targets in April 2018 in the Marine EnvironmentalProtection Committee (MEPC) Resolution MEPC.304(72) to decarbonize the global fleet. The IMO strategy includesinitial targets to reduce the average carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per transport work from 2008 levels by at least40 percent by 2030, and 70 percent by 2050. These targets also seek to reduce the total annual greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions from shipping by at least 50 percent by 2050.Many technologies are being considered to reduce carbon emissions from shipping. The American Bureau of Shipping(ABS) publication Setting the Course to Low Carbon Shipping: Pathways to Sustainable Shipping has categorized theavailable maritime fuel options for decarbonization. Among them, hydrogen (liquefied LH2 , or gaseous H2) wasidentified as a low- to zero-carbon fuel that can help meet the IMO GHG reduction target for 2050. Hydrogen offersship owners and operators a low-carbon and low-emission fuel option for potential use in internal combustionengines and fuel cells.Through a series of sustainability whitepaper publications, ABS is providing additional information to highlight thefuels being considered by the marine industry to meet the IMO GHG goals. This whitepaper provides informationfor the consideration of hydrogen as marine fuel in both the near-term and long-term. It is to be noted that theinformation provided in this document is generic. For specific guidance on hydrogen as marine fuel, contact your localABS office. fotohunter/ShutterstockINTRODUCTIONHydrogen is typically found naturally as a compound of either water or methane. To acquire pure hydrogen, theelement must be separated from these compounds. At standard conditions, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless,non-toxic, relatively nonreactive and highly combustible gas with a wide flammability range.Hydrogen is commonly produced by converting natural gas or coal into hydrogen gas and CO2 , although for thelong-term sustainability goals, renewable energy can be used to generate hydrogen through electrolysis. Inmanufacturing, hydrogen is typically used for chemical production or as an industrial feedstock.In recent years, industry has recognized hydrogen’s potential to generate electricity through fuel cells and combustiontechnologies. While in many cases hydrogen may be derived locally from fuel reforming of a hydrogen carrier (andhence may have direct GHG emissions), in a hydrogen fuel cell consuming a pure hydrogen fuel supply, greenhousegases are not emitted. In combustion engines or gas turbines, hydrogen can be used to significantly reduce GHGemissions. Note that gas turbines consuming hydrogen (or hydrogen blends with natural gas) are used primarily forland-based power production and are not considered in this document for power generation on marine vessels.While hydrogen appears to be an ideal fuel for power generation, it carries various challenges of advanced storagerequirements and fire hazard mitigation. To become a competitive alternative marine fuel, hydrogen may also face thechallenges of availability and high costs to scale production and transportation infrastructure.Page 1
SUSTAINABILITY WHITEPAPERHYDROGEN AS FUEL FOR THE REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GASIts low density causes any hydrogen to dissipate relative quickly when released in an open environment. Hydrogen inthe atmosphere cannot be contained by earth’s gravity and eventually escapes into space. Hydrogen leaks are considerednon-toxic, although the wide flammability range and potential for combustion can raise concerns of hydrogen safetyand risk management. These concerns are addressed in the hydrogen safety and design consideration sections.Hydrogen has the potential to be a zero-carbon marine fuel when it is consumed in a fuel cell or a mono-fuel internalcombustion engine. When consumed in a dual fuel combustion engine, hydrogen can significantly reduce carbonemissions. Hydrogen is characterized by having a very low tank-to-wake (TTW) emissions impact, which considers theemissions produced by an energy source. However, the life cycle of hydrogen production must be considered to evaluatethe overall emissions of GHG from hydrogen.When fossil fuels are used to generate hydrogen, carbon and GHG emissions may not necessarily be reduced. Well-totank (WTT) emissions consider all pollutants generated during fuel production, storage and transportation to the endconsumer. These can include the emissions generated when coal or natural gas is processed to generate hydrogen, orthe fossil fuels combusted to generate grid electricity used to generate hydrogen through electrolysis. To fully eliminatehydrogen emissions prior to fuel delivery, it is critical to focus on carbon-free production, storage and transportationmethods. Hydrogen can be produced in renewable or ‘green’ ways that can eliminate upstream carbon and GHGemissions and result in very low WTT emissions. When both WTT and TTW emissions are eliminated from the fuellife cycle, a zero-carbon well-to-wake (WTW) fuel option is created. Sustainability verification schemes or guarantees oforigin (GO) certificates such as the EU CertifHy project can be used, which may be implemented in the hydrogen marketto track and quantify the emissions footprint of generated hydrogen. Such schemes may be implemented regionally ornationally but are not yet mandated by the IMO.GHGWELL-TO-TANKEmissions fromproduction andtransportation TANK-TO-WAKEEmissions fromburning or usingan energy source WELL-TO-WAKENet Emissions ImpactFigure 1: Well-to-Wake Emissions ConceptHYDROGEN PRODUCTIONEmissions from the production of hydrogen compose the majority of the WTW pollutants. There are four types ofhydrogen in terms of the emissions released during production: Brown hydrogen, produced from the processing of coal Grey hydrogen, produced from the processing of other fossil fuels or natural gas Blue hydrogen, produced from the processing of fossil fuels accompanied with emission control technologies,including carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) methods Green hydrogen, produced from renewable energy sources, typically via electrolysis using water. Sources of electricitycan include solar or wind power to provide net-zero carbon hydrogen productionGrey hydrogen produced from natural gas is the primary hydrogen production method, as shown in Figure 2, accountingfor 75 percent of global hydrogen production. Brown hydrogen is the second largest source of hydrogen production,primarily in China. Green hydrogen production contributes only two percent of global hydrogen supply, while bluehydrogen production is not yet widespread.Page 2
HYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELGreen Hydrogen2%Brown Hydrogen23%Grey HydrogenCarbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) involvesthe collection, transportation, reuse and storage of CO2emissions that are separated from other combustionor processing substances originating from fossil-basedfuels. In general, hydrogen production is a high energyconsumption process. Currently, the energy usedworldwide to produce hydrogen is about 275 Mtoe(million tons of oil equivalent), which corresponds totwo percent of the world’s energy demand. Most ofthe demand is driven by fossil fuel refineries and theproduction of ammonia for fertilizer.Grey hydrogen production is very carbon intensive,ranging between 71 kg CO2/MJ H2 for natural gas to166 kg CO2/MJ H2 for coal, but these emissions can bereduced or eliminated by implementing CCUS technology.75%Figure 2: Production Sources of HydrogenElectricityNatural GasHardCoalFigure 3 shows the WTT amount of CO2 generated for one megajoule of contained energy. The graph shows the variationof possible emissions from several types of hydrogen production, as high as 325 kg CO2/MJ H2 and as low as zero forrenewable energy or nuclear generation. These values are compared to the typical estimated CO2 generated during WTTproduction of marine gas oil (MGO), 14.2 kg CO2/MJ MGO.With CCUS, 90% Capture RateWithout CCUSWith CCUS, 90% Capture RateWith CCUS, 56% Capture RateWithout CCUSRenewable or Nuclear GenerationGas-fired GenerationCoal-fired GenerationWorld Average Electricity MixMGO Estimate Baseline (gCO2/MJ MGO)050100150200250300350gCO2/MJH2Figure 3: Carbon Release from Hydrogen Production With and Without Using CCUSCompared to Marine Gas Oil (MGO) as BaselineThe extraction of hydrogen from natural gas is accomplished through reformation using three established methods: (i)steam reforming, which uses water as an oxidant and a source of hydrogen; (ii) partial oxidation, which uses the oxygenin air in the presence of a catalyst; and (iii) autothermal reforming, which is a combination of the first two reformationmethods. In all cases, syngas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) is formed and then converted to hydrogen and CO2through the water-gas shift reaction. To reduce the carbon intensity of fossil-fuel hydrogen production, renewable andsustainably sourced biomass can be used to produce syngas through gasification. Nuclear plants can also be employedto generate hydrogen from steam reforming of methane or high-temperature thermochemical production, eliminatingthose hydrogen generation methods that rely on the burning of fossil fuels.Page 3
SUSTAINABILITY WHITEPAPER symbiot/ShutterstockAlternatively, electricity can be used to electrolyze water. Electrolysers work essentially as reversed fuel cells, by takingin water and electricity, and producing hydrogen and oxygen gas. Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar ornuclear electricity generation can be used to produce green hydrogen from this process. In this case, hydrogen can beconsidered an electro-fuel with zero-carbon impact from production. Other hydrogen production processes includehigh temperature water splitting, photobiological water splitting and photoelectrochemical water splitting, but thesemethods are not yet employed in large-scale hydrogen production.It may be useful to note when considering alternatives to electrolysis hydrogen production that the high purificationrequired to meet the grade 4.5 purity standard (i.e., 99.995 percent pure) for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuelcells may add to the costs of production. Conversely, mono-fuel and dual-fuel combustion engines do not require thislevel of purification, and indeed can handle diluents (e.g., methane, carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide) that wouldotherwise cause significant degradation to a PEM fuel cell. However, this purity standard may not be a problem inother fuel cells, such as solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC), although these may have tradeoffs related to emissions, loweroperating efficiencies and high temperatures.When hydrogen production and consumption are zero-emission processes, the only life cycle emissions are producedfrom the processes of storing and transporting the fuel during distribution, and any required conversion processbetween carriers.HYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELHydrogen is characterized by having the highest energy content per mass of all chemical fuels at 120.2 MJ/kg, as shownin Table 1 compared to other marine fuels. In terms of mass energy, it exceeds MGO by 2.8 times, and alcohols by fiveto six times. Therefore, hydrogen fuel can increase the effective efficiency of an engine and help reduce specific fuelconsumption. However, on a volumetric basis, due to its lower volumetric energy density, liquid hydrogen may requirefour times more space than MGO or about two times more space than liquefied natural gas (LNG) for an equivalentamount of carried energy. Also important to consider when comparing fuel energy and required volumes are theenergy efficiencies of the consumer, or electrical energy losses in fuel cells. True for all marine fuels, additionalvolumes of fuel may be required to account for efficiency losses between the tank to the output shaft power. Hydrogenrequires low temperatures below -253 C (-423.4 F) to liquefy. Due to this very low temperature, the required volume tostore liquid hydrogen could be even higher when considering the necessary layers of materials or vacuum insulationfor cryogenic storage and other structural arrangements.Page 4
UNITHYDROGENMGOHEAVY FUELOIL (HFO)METHANE(LNG)ETHANEPROPANEBUTANEDIMETHYLETHER (DME)METHANOLETHANOLAMMONIAHYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELBoiling Point 370.8900991430570500600670790790696Lower .926.822.5Auto IgnitionTemp C585250250537515470365350450420630Flashpoint C- 60 60-188-135-104-60-411116132Energy DensityLiquid(H2 Gas at700 .812.45ComparedVolume to MGO(H2 Gas at700 bar)Table 1: Properties of Hydrogen Compared to Other Marine FuelsHydrogen can also be stored within other materials, suchas metal hydrides. This storage method binds hydrogento metal alloys in porous and loose form by applyingmoderate pressure and heat. Subsequently, hydrogenis extracted by removing the pressure and heat. Whiletechnologically feasible and safe, metal hydride andother hydrogen storage methods within solid materialsmay not be a weight-effective solution for hydrogenstorage on board ships, and this concept is not addressedfurther in this whitepaper.Due to the challenges related to low temperature orhigh-pressure storage, hydrogen can alternatively becarried within other substances such as ammonia ormethanol. These fuels may require less energy than thatneeded to refrigerate liquefied hydrogen or to compressgaseous hydrogen. Some fuel cells can consumeammonia, methanol or other hydrogen carrier fuelsby reforming and extracting hydrogen from the fuelusing internal reformers. However, these technologiesmay require higher energy input to hydrogenate andreform the fuel and therefore may result in less efficientelectrical production than pure hydrogen containmentand consumption in fuel cells. Figure 4 shows howammonia as an energy carrier can play a role in the lifecycle of hydrogen fuel, leading to either consumption ina fuel cell or combustion engine. For more informationon ammonia and methanol as marine fuel, see the ABSSustainability Whitepaper Publications Ammonia asMarine Fuel and Methanol as Marine Fuel. Netfalls Remy Musser/ShutterstockPage 5
SUSTAINABILITY WHITEPAPERHydrogenproductionTransport(Energy carriers)Reforming/gasificationNatural gasPetroleumCoalLiquid hydrogenH2UtilizationGasificationLH2(-253 C)H2Fuel cell vehiclePower generationFuel CellOrganic hydrides(methylcyclohexane)(H2 6wt%)RenewableenergyCarbon dioxidecapture and storageCH3tolueneH2Production byelectricity and heat3 H2CH3DehydrogenationMCHNH3 directcombustiongas turbineAmmonia NH3Liquid: -33 C or 8.5 Bar(H2 18wt%)Direct useas a fuelFuel cellNH3 furnaceFigure 4: Hydrogen and Ammonia Production and Use(Source: ABS Setting the Course to Low Carbon Shipping: Pathways to Sustainable Shipping)Hydrogen and hydrogen carrier fuels are most often consumed in fuel cells to generate zero-emission TTW electricity,regardless of how the hydrogen was produced. There are many completed and ongoing studies of fuel cells, primarilyto evaluate and improve fuel cell energy efficiency. There are several types of fuel cells with various operational andcost trade-offs, including alkaline or SOFC, but in general, they consume hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat,water, and electricity, such as the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, shown in Figure 5. For more information onfuel cell technology, see the fuel cells section of the ABSpublication Pathways to Sustainable Shipping: Setting theElectric CurrentCourse for Low Carbon Shipping or the ABS Guide for FuelWater andCell Power Systems for Marine or Offshore Applications.eExcess FuelHeat Outee-H2e-Hydrogen fuel blends consist of hydrogen blended with acompatible fuel. The most common are hydrogen and LNG(HLNG) blends which can reduce exhaust gas emissionsand GHG footprint. A hydrogen-cryogenic natural gas(HCNG) blend can typically be composed of a combinationof 20 percent hydrogen and 80 percent compressed naturalgas. Hydrogen blends with natural gas are most likely to beadopted for power generation on land in gas turbines andare not the focus of this whitepaper.H H H2OH H O2Air InFuel InAnodeCathodePolymer ElectrolyteFigure 5: Typical Proton ExchangeMembrane (PEM) Fuel Cell(Source: ABS Setting the Course to Low CarbonShipping: Pathways to Sustainable Shipping)Page 6Hydrogen may also be co-combusted with diesel fuel, anddepending on the proportions used, reductions of nitrogenoxide (NOx) emissions may require the use of exhaust gasaftertreatment technologies. Other minor modificationsin engine timing and control systems may be required toachieve optimum engine performance. More informationon hydrogen consumed in internal combustion enginescan be found in the prime mover section.
HYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELHYDROGEN SAFETYCHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROGENHydrogen is a remarkable elemental substance with several important physical and chemical characteristics. Someproperties of hydrogen are listed in Table 2 compared to methane, the main component of LNG, and the comparableproperties of the common marine fuel MGO.HYDROGENMETHANE (LNG)MGOBoiling Temperature ( C)*-253-161.5180-360Liquid Density (kg/m3)*70.84309000.0840.668-Gas Density (kg/m3)** (Air: 50.385-448.7510.4-Lower Flammability Limit (% vol. fraction)***4.05.30.7Upper Flammability Limit (% vol. fraction)***75.017.05Minimum Ignition Energy (mJ)***0.0170.274-Auto-ignition Temperature ( C)585537250Temperature at Critical Point (K)33.19****190.55-Pressure at Critical Point (kPaA)12974595-Dynamic Viscosity (g/cm·s x 10-6)Flame Temperature in Air ( C)Maximum Burning Velocity (m/s)Heat of Vaporization (J/g)** At their normal boiling points for comparison purpose** At normal temperature and pressure, 20 C and 1 atm.*** Ignition and combustion properties for gas-air mixtures at 25 C and 101.3 kPaATable 2: Comparison of Physical Properties of Hydrogen and Methane (LNG) (Source: MSC.420(97))The primary safety concerns for hydrogen are its flammable properties and wide flammability range, as shown inFigure 6. The flammability range increases when mixed with pure oxygen. Evannovostro/ShutterstockPage 7
SUSTAINABILITY Diesel5.5MGO (Marine Gas Oil)0.7 5HFO (Heavy Fuel 98.5Butane250DME (Dimethyl Ether)0%100%Figure 6: Typical Gas Flammability Ranges in % Volume with AirWhile hydrogen leaks in open areas are expected to dissipate quickly, any leak in open or contained spaces can be aserious fire hazard due to the quick formation of flammable gas mixture. More is discussed about hydrogen leaks, fireprevention and leak detection in the fire safety section.Hydrogen is a gas or cryogenic liquid and has one of the lowest melting and boiling points of all elements excepthelium. To obtain liquid hydrogen, the fuel must be stored at temperatures below -253 C (-423.4 F), which can requirehigh energy input. At this temperature, other common gases or compounds can liquefy or solidify on contact andshould be isolated from liquefied or cryogenic hydrogen. Human contact with cryogenic materials or uninsulated tanks,pipes or valves can cause cold burns or serious skin damage. Although non-toxic, at high concentrations hydrogen canact as an asphyxiant when displacing available oxygen.FIRE SAFETYHydrogen is a flammable gas due to its very low activation and ignition energy. Despite this, the risks of hydrogenexplosions can be minimized and mitigated if proper measures and protocols are followed.The flow or agitation of hydrogen gas or liquid can create electrostatic charges that can result in sparks and ignition offlammable concentrations of hydrogen. For this reason, it is important to make sure all hydrogen handling equipmentis protected from electric charge build up and potential sparks to avoid hydrogen ignition.Hydrogen flames are invisible, burning mostly outside of the visible light spectrum, and can be very difficult to detect.Hydrogen also burns extremely quickly compared to other flammable compounds, with a maximum speed of 3.15 m/s.Depending on the flammable conditions, pressure and concentration of hydrogen, a mixture exposed to ignitionsources may combust by either deflagration (subsonic combustion) or detonation (supersonic combustion, not possiblein open air). Hydrogen gas systems should account for protections against deflagrations propagating through thepiping and containment systems using proper pressure relief systems, rupture disks or relief panels. Detonations canresult in extreme pressure increases (up to 20 times atmospheric pressures) and are more challenging to contain thandeflagrations. The best practices to mitigate the risks of deflagrations and detonations are to eliminate the possibilitiesof dangerous concentrations of hydrogen by employing proper gas management, pipe purging and ventilation practices.Page 8
HYDROGEN AS MARINE FUELContained areas are especially susceptible to fire hazards if hydrogen leaks inside. Primary safety measures whenconsidering carrying and using hydrogen include proper ventilation, hydrogen gas detection, and appropriately ratedelectrical equipment in hazardous areas and enclosed spaces into which hydrogen may leak and build to levels thatmay cause flammable conditions.The development and possibility of combustible hydrogen and air mixtures depends on the concentration of hydrogen,storage pressures (i.e., the speed of jet from a leak), the amount of stored hydrogen, the amount of insulation, thelocation of release and weather conditions (such as wind, air, temperature, etc.).If using gaseous hydrogen as a fuel, compounds that are typically added to natural gases to identify leaks should notbe used as the sulfur in those compounds can react with and degrade hydrogen. Dedicated hydrogen sensors may beuseful when using gaseous hydrogen, but may not be practicable, for example, in areas of high transient airflow whereescaping gas may inadvertently be directed away from sensors. As such, it is also preferable to implement leak detectionstrategies in the hardware itself, for instance monitoring pressures under conditions of no gas flow and confirmingthose parameters indicate the absence of leaks.To extinguish a hydrogen fire, dry chemical extinguishers or carbon dioxide extinguishers can be used. If a hydrogenfire spreads to other materials around or near contained hydrogen in pipes or tanks, appropriate water spray coolingand insulation arrangements should be in place to protect the contained hydrogen from heating up, and pressure reliefarrangements should be in place to protect from over-pressurization. Both pr
Grey hydrogen produced from natural gas is the primary hydrogen production method, as shown in Figure 2, accounting for 75 percent of global hydrogen production. Brown hydrogen is the second largest source of hydrogen production, primarily in China. Green hydrogen production contributes only two percent of global hydrogen supply, while blue
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Nel Hydrogen today Pure-play hydrogen company listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange (NEL.OSE) . Hydrogen Electrolysers Hydrogen Fueling Hydrogen Solutions. Environment Ecomony Energy Security Motivation today: Hydrogen must, and will be renewable. 7 9 16 23 40 71 100 137 177 232 312 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
6 Hydrogen Liquefaction ¾There are 10 hydrogen liquefaction plants in North America zTrain size ranges from 6 to 35 TPD (5,400 to 32,000 kg/day) ¾In the 1960’s, liquid hydrogen plants were built to support the Apollo program. Today, liquid hydrogen is used to reduce the cost of hydrogen distribution. zDelivering a full tube traile
Gas Infrared heaters for houses . Sterling Engine for Hydrogen reach fuel can be extremely useful for syngas produced from biomass and for microengine. Hydrogen Energy: Research of Hydrogen detonation phenomena (Shock waves in Hydrogen and hydrogen reach fuels)
The liquefied hydrogen storage tank, shown in Fig. 3, is a spherical double-wall vacuum tank with a 2,500 m 3 nominal geometrical capacity. The tank receives and stores liquefied hydrogen transported from Australia, and also stores liquefied hydrogen transported by land from sites in Japan so it can be loaded into liquefied hydrogen carriers
to detect unintended hydrogen releases, can facilitate the design and permitting of hydrogen facilities. The International Fire Code (IFC), 2009 edition [9] and 2012 edition [10], and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA ) 2, Hydrogen Technologies Code [11] have mandated the use of hydrogen safety sensors in hydrogen operations.
Fiction Excerpt 1: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (retold with excerpts from the novel by Mark Twain) Saturday morning was come, and all the summer world was bright and fresh, and brimming with life. There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips. There was cheer in every face and a spring in every step. The locust trees were in bloom and the fragrance .
