DISCERNING WITNESSES: FIRST AND SECOND CENTURY

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DISCERNING WITNESSES: FIRST AND SECOND CENTURY TEXTUAL STUDIES INCHRISTIAN AUTHORITYBYJACOB JOSEPH PRAHLOWA Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty ofWAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCESin Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree ofMASTER OF ARTSReligionMay 2014Winston-Salem, North CarolinaApproved By:Bill J. Leonard, Ph.D., AdvisorMary F. Foskett, Ph.D., ChairStephen B. Boyd, Ph.D.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThere are a number of people whom I would like to thank for their assistance in craftingthis thesis. Foremost, I offer my sincere gratitude to Dr. Bill Leonard for his continuous support,longsuffering patience, clarifying questions, and immense knowledge. Without his guidance, thecompletion of this project would not have been possible.Second, I would also like to offer profound thanks to the other members of my thesiscommittee, Dr. Mary Foskett and Dr. Stephen Boyd, for their encouragement, insightfulcomments, and hard questions.Third, I need to thank my wife Hayley for her enduring encouragement, manyuninterrupted study hours, and the willingness to listen as I worked through concepts aloud.Many thanks also go out to Dr. Lisa Driver, Dr. Gilbert Meilaender, Dr. Ronald Rittgers,Dr. Michael Baumen, Mr. Kevin Bywater, Mr. Timothy Smith, Dr. James Powell, and Dr. JarrodWhitaker, as well as colleagues Mr. Daniel McCluskey and Mr. Ben Cabe, for their influence onmy thinking about the history of Christianity and insights into the method behind this project.Additionally, I would like to thank those who have helped me review and edit parts ofthis thesis, Jody Byrkett and Laura Ehlen. And a huge thank you to my chief editors, Joseph andTamara Prahlow, who not only helped me edit this study, but also have edited and shaped who Iam since they brought me into the world. The errors in this study are solely mine.Finally, I thank my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, whose blessings have enabled me toseek Him with my mind, and whose Truth all of my academic works attempt to find.ii

TABLE OF CONTENTSTable of ContentsList of TablesList of AbbreviationsAbstractChapter One: Framing the Discernment of WitnessesI. IntroductionII. MethodologyIII. Multiple Forms of AuthorityChapter Two: The Marcion ProblemI. IntroductionII. Historical Sources on MarcionIII. Canon as Lens: Modern Scholars on MarcionIV. ConclusionsChapter Three: Clement of RomeI. IntroductionII. Textual Authority in First ClementIII. Non-Textual Authority in First ClementIV. Authority in ClementChapter Four: Ignatius of AntiochI. IntroductionII. Textual Authority in IgnatiusIII. Non-Textual Authority in IgnatiusIV. Authority in IgnatiusChapter Five: Discerning WitnessesI. Review of PerspectivesII. Conclusions and ImplicationsReferencesAppendix A: Citations in ClementAppendix B: Citations in IgnatiusAppendix C: Additional MaterialsCurriculum 4116125132134

LIST OF TABLESTable I: 1 Clement 46:8 Source Comparison (51)Table II: Citations in First Clement (117)Table III: Citations in Ignatius (126)Table IV: Comparison of Clement 13:2 with Proposed Synoptic Parallels (132)iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS1ClemAFAFSCIAHAp. Ez.Ass. SmyrSTITignTNT in AFTralTTPTUWUNTFirst ClementApostolic Fathers (Grant)Apostolic Fathers and the Search for Christian Identity (Koester)Against Heresies (Irenaeus)Apocryphal EzekielAssumption of MosesBiblical Canon (McDonald)Canon of the New Testament (Metzger)Early Church (T. Robinson)Early Christian Artifacts (Hurtado)Early Christian WritersEcclesiastical History (Eusebius)Ephesians“I Clement: An Introduction” (Gregory)“I Clement and the Writings ” (Gregory)Andrew F. Gregory and Christopher TuckettHTS Teologiese Studies/Theological StudiesHoly Writing, Sacred Text (Barton)“Epistles of Ignatius and the Writings ” (Foster)Jesus and the Gospel (Farmer)Journal of Theological StudiesKostenberger and KrugerSeptuagintMagnesiansNovum Testamentum Graece, Nestle-Aland 27th EditionNew TestamentNew Testament in the Apostolic FathersNew Testament Canon (Gamble)“The New Testament in the Making” (C.F. Evans)Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus“The New Testament in the Second Century” (Hurtado)Orthodox Corruption of Scripture (Ehrman)Old cripture and Tradition in St. Ignatius of Antioch” (Grant)“Study of Ignatius of Antioch in Syria and Asia” (Trevett)“Text of the New Testament in Apostolic Fathers” (Foster)TralliansThe Teaching of PeterTexte und UntersuchungenWissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen TestamentStandard abbreviations are used for Biblical booksv

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this research is to examine the sources of authority employed by Marcion,Clement of Rome, and Ignatius of Antioch as they navigated competing theologies during thepost-Apostolic period of the early Christian church. Combining textual analysis and historicalreconstruction, this study draws upon both the extant works of these early writers and the moderntreatments of authority in early Christianity, finding that these authors navigated multiple formsof textual and non-textual authority in constructing their theological programs. Determining thefunction of the specifically Christian writings which now comprise the New Testament in theirpre-canonical employment constitutes an important aspect of the current project. This studyconcludes that these three writers created a hermeneutic for defining and utilizing all potentiallyuseful sources through their appeals to the central authority found in the person and event of Jesusof Nazareth.vi

CHAPTER ONE: FRAMING THE DISCERNMENT OF WITNESSESI. Introduction“How do we account for the fact that, by AD 110, there was a large and vigorous internationalmovement, already showing considerable diversity, whose founding myth (in a quite 'neutral'sense) was a story about one Jesus of Nazareth, a figure of the recent past?”1This study examines a facet of that larger historical project, namely, discerning thesources to which followers of Jesus appealed as useful for understanding the Jesus narrativeduring the decades spanning the turn of the first to the second century. On one hand, this questionmay seem somewhat frivolous, as Christians2 have long been ‘people of the book,’ using theBible as the primary basis for their faith and practice. On the other hand, however, this questionsuggests a historical problem: that followers of Jesus have long used a collection of written worksas the basis for faith despite the fact that Jesus of Nazareth never seems to have written anything.3Lacking a clear written record from their founder, those following Jesus in the decades after hislife were faced with the task of determining which sources could be utilized as the basis ofChristian faith and practice.This study examines appeals to textual and non-textual authorities4 found in the writingsof Marcion, Clement of Rome, and Ignatius of Antioch. These early Christians, like othersnavigating questions pertaining to authority within early Christianity, each drew upon a variety of1N.T. Wright. Jesus and the Victory of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996. 90.The definition and application of the term ‘Christian’ to the earliest followers of Jesus has commanded aconsiderable amount of scholarship in recent years (See Andrew S. Jacobs “A Jew’s Jew: Paul and theEarly Christian Problem of Jewish Origins.” In The Journal of Religion, 258-286. Volume 86, 2. April2006.). For the purposes of this study, where the earliest followers of Jesus are concerned, the term ‘JesusMovement’ is used, designating the connection between the followers of Jesus and Judaism, whilemaintaining an awareness of the clear and evolving differences. The writers examined in this study aretermed ‘Christian.’ This is neither to deny the complexity of the relationship between followers of Jesusand the religion of Israel in the first century nor to advocate a monolithic Christianity (see Karen King.What is Gnosticism? Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003.), but rather offers anoperational definition which allows this study to focus on the sources employed by followers of Jesus.3F.F. Bruce. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove (IL): Intervarsity Press, 1988. 118.4This study uses ‘authority’ and ‘authoritative’ interchangeably as references to materials used indetermining, adjudicating, or controlling belief and praxis within Christian communities. The current studyis not concerned with inherent textual authority (i.e., inspiration), but the use of authoritative sources inearly Christianity.21

sources as they made their claims about Christian faith and practice.5 By their use of thesesources, Marcion, Clement, and Ignatius sought to reinforce the veracity of their theologies andprovide the basis for their claims about the Christian faith. In other words, this study considers theways in which these early Christians developed criteria of authentic authority, and how theyutilized various sources in their writings as they sought to defend and define Christian faith. Theultimate conclusion is that Marcion, Clement, and Ignatius each created a hermeneutic fordefining and utilizing extant sources of authority that emphasized the central paramount authorityof the Lord Jesus Christ.II. MethodologyExamining sources of authority in early Christianity raises a number of methodologicalconcerns which must be addressed before turning to the writings of Marcion, Clement, andIgnatius. Broadly speaking, the overarching methodological principles of this study have beenshaped by socio-historical studies of the ancient Mediterranean cultures during the era of theRoman Empire, the reasoned eclecticism of textual criticism, and a historically and theologicallyinformed study of early Christianity.6 This section considers the overarching context of earlyChristian writings7 and the problem of citation before offering nine methodologicalconsiderations for this study.The Textual Context of Early Christian WritingsUnderstanding the historical and literary context of textual sources in the ancientMediterranean world remains vital for the study of this period, especially when considering5These writers were chosen due to their distinctiveness within early Christianity and/or chronologicalproximity to the beginning of the movement.6Bruce Metzger's The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1997.) and Lee McDonald's The Biblical Canon: Its Origins, Transmission, and Authority(3rd Edition. Peabody (MA): Hendrickson Publishers, 2007.) have been especially influential in theformation of this integrated methodology. Additionally useful is J.D. Crossan’s perspective on historicalstudy, that such study is concerned “not with an unattainable objectivity, but with an attainable honesty”(See John Dominic Crossan. The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. SanFrancisco: Harper Collins, 1992. xxxiv).7‘Early Christian writings’ are those created by Christians, as opposed to those existing before Christ.2

appeals to texts.8 The lack of clearly marked references to external sources within early Christiantexts has fostered extensive debates concerning how one determines the use of an outside sourcewithin such a text.9 Charles Hill notes that early Christian writers10 followed the standard literarypractices of Greco-Roman and Jewish culture in the creation of their writings, neither exactlyreplicating nor directly citing the sources they drew upon.11 Hill writes that, “Even a stated andsincerely held regard for the sacredness of a text did not necessarily affect an author's practice ofwhat we would call loose or adaptive citation.”12 Thus what today might be considered sloppycitation, plagiarism, or even falsification of an original text would have been viewed in theancient context as explicating the meaning of that text. Another contextual factor worth noting isthe circulation of early Christian literature. Harry Gamble indicates that, “If Christian books weredisseminated in roughly the same way as other books, that is, by private seriatim copying, wemight surmise that they spread slowly and gradually in ever-widening circles, first in proximity to8Harry Y. Gamble. “The Book Trade in the Roman Empire.” In The Early Text of the New Testament, 2336. Edited by Charles E. Hill and Michael J. Kruger. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. 23. Mostnotable is the ongoing debate surrounding questions of unity and diversity. Following the lead of WalterBauer, some argue for such radical diversity among early Christianity that an “orthodox” strand of faithappears to be one of many equally viable forms of early Christian faith. Insofar as the current projecttouches on this topic, it follows the problemization of the Bauer Hypothesis offered by Frederick Norris(Norris, Frederick W. “Ignatius, Polycarp, and I Clement: Walter Bauer Reconsidered.” In VigiliaeChristianinae, 23-44. Volume 30, 1. March 1976.), Michael Kruger (Canon Revisited: Establishing theOrigins and Authority of the New Testament Books. Wheaton: Crossway Publishers, 2012.), and ScottCharlesworth (“Indicators of 'Catholicity' in Early Gospel Manuscripts.” In The Early Text of the NewTestament, 37-48. Edited by Charles E. Hill and Michael J. Kruger. Oxford: Oxford University Press,2012.). Clearly, a diversity of theology and practice existed among early Christians that makes parsing anyJesus tradition difficult, though unifying factors existed which make claims of radical diversity problematic(See William A. Farmer. Jesus and the Gospel: Tradition, Scripture, and Canon. Philadelphia: FortressPress, 1982. 86). Manuscripts, documents, and writings are used interchangeably with the term ‘text/s’ inthis study, and are defined as any written source, either extant or lost to modern scholarship. Texts shouldnot be understood to specifically connote scriptures.9Arguments suggest that the lack of citations indicates: the relative unimportance of a source; an assumedwidespread knowledge of a source; or the consultation of an intermediate source communicating a messagewithout the implication of authority (See BC, 257 and Charles E. Hill. “’In These Very Words’: Methodsand Standards of Literary Borrowing in the Second Century.” In The Early Text of the New Testament, 261281. Edited by Charles E. Hill and Michael J. Kruger. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. 265-7).10In this study ‘early Christian writers’ is a general term designating anyone writing from a position thatwould later be termed ‘Christian,’ including those composing the texts now included in the New Testament,as well as those commonly termed ‘Apostolic Fathers’ or Second Century Writers.11Hill, “Methods,” 280.12Ibid., 277.3

their places of origin, then regionally, and then transregionally .”13 While this was the case forcertain writings, many early Christian texts appear to have quickly gained wide circularity,indicating that these letters were regularly collected, copied, and distributed to be read throughoutthe wider church.14 These factors must be brought into consideration when dealing with questionsof textual authority in early Christianity.The Citation ProblemIn Der Ertrag von Bibelstellenregistern fur die Kanonsgeschichte, Franz Stuhlhoferoutlined two major methodological questions regarding references to external sources withinearly Christian writings: Which sources are being used? And what inferences may be pulled fromreferences if they are found? In other words, how does one determine what constitutes the use ofone text in another, and to what extent does the use of a text indicate its authoritative status?15 Tomediate these concerns, scholars have proposed definitional clarity and reference consideration asmeans of further resolving the often wildly divergent claims of external source references foundin early Christian writings. Definitional clarity requires firm definitions for terms such as“allusion,” “quotation,” and “reference.”16 In this study four categorizations will be applied topotential uses of any source in a text: “Reference,” which indicates any hint of use; “allusion,”which shows some verbal identity with another source; “quotation,” which shares strong verbalidentity with other sources; and “quotations with introductions" or "formal quotations," which arethe strongest and most clear representations of use and include clear markers of an external13Gamble, “Book Trade,” 33.Ibid., 33; John Barton. Holy Writings Sacred Text: The Canon in Early Christianity. Louisville:Westminster John Knox Press, 1997. 94; Andreas J. Kostenberger and Michael J. Kruger. The Heresy ofOrthodoxy: How Contemporary Culture's Fascination with Diversity Has Reshaped Our Understanding ofEarly Christianity. Wheaton: Crossway Publishers, 2010. 198-201; Trobisch (Trobisch, David. DieEntstehung der Paulusbriefsammlung: Studien zu den Anfangen christlicher Publizistik. NTOA 10.Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989.) argues circulation began with Paul himself.15Franz Stuhlhofer. “Der Ertrag von Bibelstellenregistern fur die Kanonsgeschichte.” In Zeitschrift fur diealttestamentliche wissenschaft, 244-261. Volume 100, 1988. My personal thanks to Heiko Wiggers of theWake Forest University Department of German and Russian for translation assistance with Stuhlhofer.16Andrew F. Gregory and Christopher Tuckett. “Reflections on Method: What constitutes the Use of theWritings that later formed the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers?” In The Reception of the NewTestament in the Apostolic Fathers, 61-82. Edited by Andrew F. Gregory and Christopher M. Tuckett.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 64-5.144

source.17 Recognizing these categories of textual use, scholars have long favored exegeting thetext in a manner which yields numerous allusions and non-formal quotations.18 However, thisexposes the problems of non-extant materials (since many early Christian writings are no longerextant, there may be quotations present from materials which are undetectable) and textualcriticism (even when there is access to the modern form of the text, this does not necessarilyindicate this form matches that which would have been known by an ancient author).19 Referenceconsideration seeks to overcome these problems by 1) indicating that apparent uses of extantmaterials are the only possible references made by an early Christian author to external sourcesand 2) noting the assumption that the form of the sources being drawn upon have remainedrelatively firm from the time of their composition until the earliest manuscript evidence in thesecond century.20 As Arthur Bellinzoni reminds us, “We must resign ourselves to comparinglater witnesses to such texts with all of the hazards that such comparisons involve.”2117Ibid., 64-7; These definitions do not indicate that only those references introduced with formal markersare to be considered quotations, as the level of verbal identity that a text shares with an outside sourceremains the chief identifier of use. Metzger has noted that lengthy passages or references in polemicaltreatises, even when not formally introduced, should be understood as quotations, likely copied frommanuscripts. But the use of introductory formulae, “leaves no doubt that an author wants the reader to beaware of his or her source, often because that source is considered in some sense authoritative.” See BruceM. Metzger. “Patristic Evidence and the Textual Criticism of the New Testament.” In New TestamentStudies, 379-400. Volume 18, 1972. 379-80.18Hill, “Methods,” 262; GT, 68.19GT, 67-8; The implications of textual criticism are especially complex and vary from scholar to scholar.Kruger argues that attitudes regarding textual reproduction within early Christian writings may be drawnout by textual fluidity within e

TU Texte und Untersuchungen WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Standard abbreviations are used for Biblical books . vi ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is

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