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D A V I DKARL MARXM c L E L L A Nndoubtedly the bestone-volume biography ofthe great man in existence.'Sunday TimesAB I O G R A P H Y

KARL MARXis Professor of Political Theory atthe University of Kent. His numerous books have beentranslated into many languages. His most recent publications are Simone Weil: Utopian Pessimist and UntoCaesar: The Political Relevance of Christianity and he isnow working on a book which relates recent case lawto political theory.DAVID MCLELLAN

ALSO BY DAVID M c L E L L A NThe Young Hegelians and Karl MarxMarx before MarxismKarl Marx: The Early TextsMarx's GrundrisseKarl Marx: His Life and ThoughtMarxEngelsKarl Marx: Selected WritingsMarxism after MarxSimone Weil: Utopian PessimistUnto Caesar: The Political Relevance of Christianity

David McLellanKARL MARXA BiographyPAPERMAC

&First published 1973 by Macmillan Press LtdThis edition published 1995 by Papermacan imprint of Macmillan General BooksCavaye Place London s w i o gtcand BasingstokeAssociated companies throughout the worldISBN O 333 639472Copyright David McLellan 1973, 1995T h e right of David McLellan to be identified as theauthor of this work has been asserted by him in accordancewith the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmissionof this publication may be made without written permission.No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copiedor transmitted save with written permission or in accordancewith the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended).Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation tothis publication may be liable to criminal prosecutionand civil claims for damages.135798642A CIP catalogue record for this book is available fromthe British LibraryPhototypeset by Intypc, LondonPrinted and bound in Great Britain byMackays of Chatham pic, KentThis book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not,by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out,or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consentin any form of binding or cover other than that in whichit is published and without a similar condition including thiscondition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

ContentsList of Plates viiAcknowledgements viiiPreface to Third Edition ixPreface to First Edition xiMap: Germany about 1848 xiiiONE:TRIER,BONNANDBERLINChildhood, 1. Student Days, 13. Journalism, 32.t w o :PARISMarriage and Hegel, 57. The Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbiicher, 69.The 'Paris Manuscripts', 91.THREE:Last Months in Paris, 110.BRUSSELSThe Materialist Conception of History, 125.Weitling and Proudhon, 137.The Founding of the Communist League, 149.FOUR:COLOGNEFrom Brussels to Paris, 173.Politics in Cologne, 177.The Neue Rheinische Zeitung, 179. The Watershed, 186.The Demise of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, 193.FIVE:Paris Again, 201.LONDONThe First Year in London, 207.Refugee Politics, 229. Life in Dean Street, 237.Resumed Economic Studies, 251. Journalism, 255.

viCONTENTSSix:THE'ECONOMICS'The Grundrisse and Critique of Political Economy, 266.Marx and Lassalle, 287.Herr Vogt, 283.Life in Grafton Terrace, 294.Capital, 302.Life in Modena Villas, 319.SEVEN:THEINTERNATIONALOrigins of the International, 332.Growth of the International, 337.The International at its Zenith, 346.The Franco-Prussian War and the Decline of the International, 355.EIGHT:Marx at Home, 380.THEWork, 385.LASTHealth, 390.Russia, France and Britain, 401.NINE:DECADEThe Last Years, 408.EPILOGUEThe Russian Aristocrat, 417.The American Senator, 417.The Down-and-out Prussian Lieutenant, 418.The Anarchist Opponent, 419.POSTSCRIPT:The Faithful Disciple, 419.The Adoring Daughter, 420.The English Gentleman, 420.TEN:The European Scene, 394.Marx's Confession, 421.MARXTODAYChronological Table, 426.Genealogical Tree, 432.Diagram of Marx's 'Economics', 433.Select Critical Bibliography, 434.Index,456.422.

List of rx's birthplaceKarl Marx, aged eighteenJenny von WestphalenFriedrich EngelsHelena DemuthJenny Marx, soon after her marriageJenny Marx with her eldest daughter Jenny28 Dean StreetThe first known photograph of MarxThe younger JennyLaura MarxFreddy DemuthEleanor MarxEdgar MarxMarx and Engels with Jenny, Eleanor and Laura9 Grafton TerraceMarx in 1872Marx and his daughter JennyMarx in 1867The only known profile photograph of MarxMarx in 1875Marx in 1882: the last photograph41 Maitland Park RoadThe chair in the British MuseumMarx's tomb in Highgate CemeteryJenny Marx shortly before her death

AcknowledgementsThe plates are reproduced by permission of the following: i, Staatsbibliothek, Berlin; 2 and 14, Dietz Verlag, Berlin; 3-7, io, 15, 18 and 26, Int.Instituut voor Soc. Geschiedenis, Amsterdam; 9 and 21, Radio TimesHulton Picture Library; 11 and 13, Marx Memorial Library; 12, DavidHeisler, London; 17, 19 and 22, Institut fur Marxismus-Leninismus, EastBerlin; 20 and 23, Communist Party Headquarters, London; 24, theBritish Museum; 25, Angelo Hornak, London. Nos 8 and 16 were takenby the author.

Preface to Third EditionFor this edition I have added a short postscript on how our view of Marxhas been shaped by the events of the twentieth century, and also broughtthe bibliography up to date.D. M.

Preface to First EditionThere has been no full-scale biography of Marx in English covering allaspects of his life since that of Mehring, first published in the originalGerman in 1918. Two events have occurred since then which justify afresh attempt: first, there is the publication of the unexpurgated MarxEngels correspondence - together with numerous other letters relatingto Marx's activities; second, several of Marx's crucial writings werepublished only in the 1930s and considerably alter the picture of hisintellectual contribution.Much writing about Marx has obviously suffered from the grinding ofpolitical axes. Clearly it is impossible to pretend to a completely 'neutral'account of anyone's life - let alone Marx's. There is a vast amount ofinformation and commentary on Marx and the very process of selectionimplies a certain standpoint. What I have tried to do is at least to writesine ira et studio and present the reader with a reasonably balanced picture.I have therefore relied considerably on quotation and write from a sympathetically critical standpoint that avoids the extremes of hagiographyand denigration.The book is intended for the general reader; and I have attempted tocover fully the three main facets of Marx's life - personal, political andintellectual. In dealing with this last aspect I have had to include somerather difficult passages, particularly in the latter halves of chapters oneand two and the beginning of chapter six. These passages are, however,necessary for an accurate appreciation of Marx as a thinker.I am grateful to Dr R. D. McLellan, Dr Brian Harrison and Mr C.N. Taylor who read parts of the manuscript and made many helpfulsuggestions; my particular thanks go to Dr G. M. Thomas whose inimitable sense of style has left its imprint on virtually every page of the book.Remaining deficiencies are certainly not their fault.D.M.722 Old Dover, Road,Canterbury, KentDecember 1972

ONETrie?] Bonn and BerlinI feel myself suddenly invaded by doubt and ask myself if your heartis equal to your intelligence and spiritual qualities, if it is open tothe tender feelings which here on earth are so great a source ofconsolation for a sensitive soul; I wonder whether the peculiar demon,to which your heart is manifestly a prey, is the Spirit of God or thatof Faust. I ask myself - and this is not the least of the doubtsthat assail my heart - if you will ever know a simple happiness andfamily joys, and render happy those who surround you.Heinrich Marx to his son, MEGA i i (2) 202.i. CHILDHOODIt may seem paradoxical that Karl Marx, whom so many working-classmovements of our time claim as their Master and infallible guide torevolution, should have come from a comfortable middle-class home. Yetto a remarkable extent he does himself epitomise his own doctrine thatmen are conditioned by their socio-economic circumstances. The Germancity in which he grew up gave him a sense of long historical traditionand at the same time close contact with the grim realities of the underdevelopment then characteristic of Germany. Thoroughly Jewish in theirorigins, Protestant by necessity yet living in a Catholic region, his familycould never regard their social integration as complete. The sense ofalienation was heightened in Marx's personal case by his subsequentinability to obtain a teaching post in a university system that had no roomfor dissident intellectuals.Marx was born in Trier on 5 May 1818. A community of about 15,000inhabitants, it was the oldest city in Germany1 and also one of the loveliest- situated as it was in the Mosel valley, surrounded by vineyards andluxuriating in an almost Mediterranean vegetation. Under the name ofAugusta Treverorum the city had been considered the Rome of the Northand served as the headquarters of the most powerful of the Roman armies.The Porta Nigra, in whose shadow (literally) Marx grew up, and theenormous fourth-century basilica were enduring monuments of Trier's

936KARLMARX:ABIOGRAPHYimperial glory. In the Middle Ages the city had been the seat of a PrinceArchbishop whose lands stretched as far as Metz, Toul and Verdun; it wassaid that it contained more churches than any other German city ofcomparable size. Marx did not only get his lifelong Rhineland accentfrom Trier: more importantly, his absorbing passion for history originatedin the very environment of his adolescence. But it was not just the cityof Roman times that influenced him: during the Napoleonic wars,together with the rest of the Rhineland, it had been annexed by Franceand governed long enough in accordance with the principles of the FrenchRevolution to be imbued by a taste for freedom of speech and constitutional liberty uncharacteristic of the rest of Germany. There was considerable discontent following incorporation of the Rhineland into Prussiain 1814. Trier had very little industry and its inhabitants were mainlyofficials, traders and artisans. Their activities were largely bound up withthe vineyards whose prosperity, owing to customs unions and outsidecompetition, was on the decline. The consequent unemployment andhigh prices caused increases in beggary, prostitution and emigration; morethan a quarter of the city's population subsisted entirely on public charity.Thus it is not surprising that Trier was one of the first cities inGermany where French doctrines of Utopian socialism appeared. TheArchbishop felt himself compelled to condemn from the pulpit the doctrines of Saint Simon; and the teachings of Fourier were actively propagated by Ludwig Gall, Secretary to the City Council, who constantlyemphasised the growing disparity and hence opposition between the richand the poor.Marx was all the more predisposed to take a critical look at society ashe came from a milieu that was necessarily excluded from complete socialparticipation. For it would be difficult to find anyone who had a moreJewish ancestry than Karl Marx.2 The name Marx is a shortened form ofMordechai, later changed to Markus. His father, Heinrich Marx, was bornin 1782, the third son of Meier Halevi Marx who had become rabbi ofTrier on the death of his father-in-law and was followed in this office byhis eldest son Samuel (Karl's uncle) who died in 1827. Meier Halevi Marxnumbered many rabbis among his ancestors, who came originally fromBohemia, and his wife, Chage, had an even more illustrious ancestry: shewas the daughter of Moses Lwow, rabbi in Trier, whose father andgrandfather were also rabbis in the same city. The father of Moses, JoshueHeschel Lwow, had been chosen rabbi of Trier in 1723, correspondedwith the leading Jewish personalities of his time and had been widelyknown as a fearless fighter in the cause of truth. It was said of him thatno important decision was taken in the Jewish world without his havingfirst been consulted. The father of Joshue Heschel, Aron Lwow, was also

TRIER,BONNANDBERLIN3rabbi in Trier and then moved to Westhofen in Alsace where he held therabbinate for twenty years. Aron Lwow's father, Moses Lwow, came fromLemberg (the German name for Lwow) in Poland, and numbered amonghis ancestors Meir Katzenellenbogen, head of the Talmudic High Schoolin Padua during the sixteenth century, and Abraham Ha-Levi Minz,rabbi in Padua, whose father had left Germany in the middle of thefifteenth century owing to persecutions there. In fact almost all the rabbisof Trier from the sixteenth century onwards were ancestors of Marx.5Less is known of the ancestry of Karl's mother, Henrietta, but sheseems to have been no less steeped in the rabbinic tradition than herhusband. She was Dutch, the daughter of Isaac Pressburg, rabbi of Nijmegen. According to Eleanor (Karl's daughter), in her grandmother's family'the sons had for centuries been rabbis'.4 In a letter to the Dutch socialistPolak, Eleanor wrote: 'It is strange that my father's semi-Dutch parentageshould be so little known. . my grandmother's family name was Pressburg and she belonged by descent to an old Hungarian Jewish family.This family, driven by persecution to Holland, settled down in thatcountry and became known as I have said, by the name Pressburg - reallythe town from which they came.'5Marx's father was remarkably unaffected by this centuries-old traditionof strict Jewish orthodoxy. He had broken early with his family, fromwhom he claimed to have received nothing 'apart from, to be fair, thelove of my mother',6 and often mentioned to his son the great difficultieshe had gone through at the outset of his career. At the time of Marx'sbirth he was counsellor-at-law to the High Court of Appeal in Trier; healso practised in the Trier County Court, and was awarded the title ofJustizrat (very roughly the equivalent of a British Q.C.). For many yearshe was President of the city lawyers' association and occupied a respectedposition in civic society though he confined himself mostly to the company of his colleagues.Although his beliefs seem to have been very little influenced by hisJewish upbringing, Heinrich Marx's 'conversion' to Christianity was onemade solely in order to be able to continue his profession.7 The Napoleonic laws had given Jews in the Rhineland a certain equality but hadattempted to impose strict controls over their commercial practices. Onthe transference of the Rhineland to Prussia, Heinrich Marx addressed amemorandum to the new Governor-General in which he respectfullyrequested that the laws applying exclusively to Jews be annulled. Hespoke of his 'fellow believers' and fully identified himself with the Jewishcommunity. But the memorandum was without effect. The Jews got theworst of both worlds: in 1818 a decree was issued keeping the Napoleoniclaws in force for an unlimited period; and two years earlier the Prussian

4KARLMARX:ABIOGRAPHYGovernment had decided that the Rhineland too should be subject to thelaws that had been in force in Prussia since 1812. These laws, whilegranting Jews rights equal to those of Christians, nevertheless made theirholding of positions in the service of the state dependent on a royaldispensation. The President of the Provincial Supreme Court, von Sethe,made an inspection tour of the Rhineland in April 1816 and interviewedHeinrich Marx, who impressed him as 'someone of wide knowledge, veryindustrious, articulate and thoroughly honest'. As a result he recommended that Heinrich Marx and two other Jewish officials be retained intheir posts. But the Prussian Minister of Justice was against exceptionsand Heinrich Marx was forced to change his religion to avoid becoming,as von Sethe put it, 'breadless'. He chose to become a Protestant - thoughthere were only about 200 Protestants in Trier - and was baptised sometime before August 1817. 8 (It was at this period that he changed his nameto Heinrich having been known hitherto as Heschel.)Marx's mother, who remains a shadowy figure, seems to have beenmore attached to Jewish beliefs than his father. When the children werebaptised in 1824 - the eldest son, Karl, being then of an age to startschool - her religion was entered as Jewish with the proviso that sheconsented to the baptism of her children but wished to defer her ownbaptism on account of her parents. Her father died in 1825 and shewas baptised the same year. Her few surviving letters are written in anungrammatical German without any punctuation. The fact that her letterseven to her Dutch relations were in German suggests that she spokeYiddish in her parents' home. Being very closely attached to her ownfamily, she always felt something of a stranger in Trier. The few indications that survive portray her as a simple, uneducated, hardworkingwoman, whose horizon was almost totally limited to her family and home,rather over-anxious and given to laments and humourless moralising. Itis therefore quite possible that Henrietta Marx kept alive in the householdcertain Jewish customs and attitudes.It is impossible to estimate with any precision the influence on Marxof this strong family tradition. 'The tradition of all the dead generationsweighs like a mountain on the mind of the living',9 he wrote later.Jewishness, above all at that time, was not something that it was easy toslough off. Heine and Hess, both intimate friends of Marx - the one aconvert to Protestatism for cultural reasons, the other an avowed atheist- both retained their Jewish self-awareness until the end of their lives.Kven Marx's youngest daughter, Eleanor, though only half-Jewish, proclaimed constantly and with a certain defiant pride at workers' meetingsin the East End of London: '1 am a Jewess.' 10 The position of Jews inthe Rhineland, where they were often scapegoats for the farmers' increas-

TRIER,BONNANDBERLIN49ing poverty, was calculated to increase their collective self-awareness.Although civil equality had been achieved under the Napoleonic laws, theinauguration of the Holy Alliance and its policy of the 'Christian state'inevitably involved an anti-semitism on the double count that the religiousJews professed an alien faith and many claimed to be a separate people.In much of the bitterest polemic - which Marx engaged in with, forexample, Ruge, Proudhon, Bakunin and Diihring - his Jewishness wasdragged into the debate. Whether Marx himself possessed anti-semitictendencies is a matter of much controversy: certainly a superficial readingof his pamphlet On the Jewish Question would indicate as much;11 and hisletters contain innumerable derogatory epithets concerning Jews; 12 butthis does not justify a charge of sustained anti-semitism. Some studentsof Marx believe they have found the key to Marx's whole system of ideasin his rabbinic ancestry; but although some of his ideas - and even lifestyle - have echoes of the prophetic tradition, this tradition itself is moreor less part of the Western intellectual heritage; and it would be toosimplistic to reduce Marx's ideas to a secularised Judaism. 13Typically Jewish attitudes were certainly not in keeping with the general views of Marx's father. According to Eleanor, he was 'steeped in thefree French ideas of the eighteenth century on politics, religion, life andart'.14 He subscribed entirely to the views of the eighteenth-centuryFrench rationalists, sharing their limitless faith in the power of reason toexplain and improve the world. In this belief these French intellectualstempered the dogmatic rationalism of the classical metaphysicians likeLeibnitz with the British empiricism of Locke and Hume. They believedthat they were capable of showing that men were by nature good and allequally rational; the cause of human misery was simply ignorance, whichresulted partly from unfortunate material circumstances and partly froma deliberate suppression or distortion of the truth by those in authority,whether civil or religious, in whose obvious interest it was to perpetuatethe deceptions under which mankind laboured. One of the chief meansof destroying this state of affairs was education; another was change inmaterial conditions.His surviving letters show that Heinrich Marx was indeed, in thewords of his grand-daughter Eleanor, 'a real Frenchman of the eighteenthcentury who knew his Voltaire and Rousseau by heart'.15 His religion wasa shallow and moralising deism: Edgar von Westphalen, Karl Marx'sfuture brother-in-law, described Heinrich Marx as a 'Protestant a la Lessing'. 16 His outlook on life is well summed up in the advice he gave toKarl: 'A good support for morality is a simple faith in God. You knowthat I am the last person to be a fanatic. But sooner or later a man hasa real need of this faith, and there are moments in life when even the man

438 KARL M A R X : A B I O G R A P H Ywho denies God is compelled against his will to pray to the Almighty.everyone should submit to what was the faith of Newton, Locke andLeibnitz.'17Heinrich Marx was also closely connected with the Rhineland liberalmovement. He was a member of a literary society, the Trier Casino Club,founded during the French occupation and so called from its meetingplace. The liberal movement gained force after the 1830 Revolution inFrance, and the Club held a dinner in 1834 (when Karl was sixteen)in honour of the liberal deputies from Trier who sat in the RhinelandParliament. This dinner - part of a campaign for more representativeconstitutions - was the only one held in Prussia, though many such wereheld in non-Prussian areas of Germany. Although Heinrich Marx wasextremely active as one of the five organisers of this political dinner, thetoast he eventually proposed was characteristically moderate and deferential. The nearest he got to the demands of the liberals was effusively tothank Frederick William III, to whose 'magnanimity we owe the firstinstitutions of popular representation'. He ended: 'Let us confidentlyenvisage a happy future, for it rests in the hands of a benevolent father,an equitable king. His noble heart will always give a favourable receptionto the justifiable and reasonable wishes of his people.'18 Several revolutionary songs were then sung and a police report informed the Governmentthat Heinrich had joined in the singing. The dinner caused anger ingovernment circles, and this anger was increased by a more radical demonstration two weeks later, on the anniversary of the founding of theCasino Club, when the 'Marseillaise' was sung and the Tricolor brandished. The Prussian Government severely reprimanded the provincialgovernor and put the Casino Club under increased police surveillance.Heinrich Marx was present at this second demonstration but this timerefrained from joining in the singing: he was no francophile and hatedwhat he termed Napoleon's 'mad ideology'.19 Although his liberal ideaswere always tempered by a certain Prussian patriotism, Heinrich Marxpossessed a sympathy for the rights of the oppressed that cannot havebeen without influence on his son.20The Marx family had enough money to live fairly comfortably. Heinrich's parents had been poor and, although his wife brought a fair dowry,he was a self-made man. The building in which Marx was born was afinely constructed three-storey house with a galleried courtyard.21 However, Heinrich rented only two rooms on the ground floor and three onthe first floor, in which he housed seven people as well as exercised hislegal practice. Eighteen months after Karl's birth, the family bought andmoved into another house in Trier, considerably smaller than the previousone, but comprising ten rooms - and with a cottage in the grounds.22

4 T R I E R , B O N NA N D BERLIN4 16The family had two maids and also owned a vineyard near the city.Nevertheless the low income tax paid by Heinrich Marx and some of hisremarks in letters to his son (he urged Karl to send several of his letterstogether by parcel post as it was cheaper) suggest that there was notmuch money to spare.23There were nine children in the Marx family of whom Karl was thethird; but the eldest, Moritz David, died aged four the year after Karl'sbirth so that Karl occupied the position of elder son. He had an eldersister, Sophie, to whom he seems to have been particularly attached duringhis childhood; she later married a lawyer and lived in Maastricht inHolland. Marx's two younger brothers both died early from tuberculosis,as did two of his sisters. Of the two remaining sisters, Louise married aDutchman, Juta, and emigrated with him to Cape Town, and Emiliemarried an engineer and lived in Trier. Most of the little informationabout Marx's childhood comes from these sisters, who told their niece,Eleanor, that as a child Marx was 'a terrible tyrant of his sisters, whomhe would "drive" as his horses down the Markusberg in Trier at full speed- and worse, would insist on their eating the "cakes" he made with dirtydough and dirtier hands. But they stood the "driving" and ate the "cakes"without a murmur, for the sake of the stories Karl would tell them as areward for their compliance.'24Up to the age of twelve Marx was probably educated at home. Forthe subsequent five years 1830-5 he attended the High School in Trierwhich had formerly been a Jesuit school and then bore the name FrederickWilliam High School. Here he received a typically solid humanist education. The liberal spirit of the Enlightenment had been introduced intothe school by the late Prince-Elector of Trier, Clement Wenceslas, whohad adopted the principles of his famous predecessor Febronius and triedto reconcile faith and reason from a Kantian standpoint. In order tocombat the ignorance of the clergy he turned the school into a sort ofminor seminary. It sank to a very low level under the French occupation,but was reorganised after the annexation of the Rhineland and recruitedseveral very gifted teachers.25 The chief influence in the school was itsheadmaster, Hugo Wyttenbach, Karl's history teacher and a friend of theMarx family. He had made a favourable impression on Goethe as 'anadept of Kantian philosophy',26 and took part in the founding of theCasino Club. After a big demonstration at Hambach in favour of freedomof the Press in 1832, Wyttenbach was put under police observation andthe school was searched: copies of the Hambach speeches and antigovernment satire were found in the possession of pupils. As a result ofthe Casino affair of 1834, Karl Marx's fourth year at the school, themathematics teacher was accused of materialism and atheism, and the

tIOKARLMARX:ABIOGRAPHYimprove mankind and himself, but left it to him to seek the means bywhich he must attain this goal, left it to him to choose the position insociety which is most appropriate and from which he can best elevateboth himself and society. This choice offers a great advantage overother creatures but at the same time is an act which can destroy man'sentire life, defeat all his plans, and make him unhappy.38To every person there had been allotted his own purpose in life, apurpose indicated by the 'soft but true' interior voice of the heart. It waseasy to be deluded by ambition and a desire for glory, so close attentionwas necessary to see what one was really fitted for. Once all factors hadbeen coolly considered, then the chosen career should be eagerly pursued.'But we cannot always choose the career for which we believe we have avocation. Our social relations have already begun to form, to some extent,before we are in a position to determine them.'" This sentence has beenhailed as the first germ of Marx's later theory of historical materialism.40However, the fact that human activity is continuously limited by theprestructured environment is an idea at least as old as the Enlightenmentand the Encyclopedists. It would indeed be surprising if even the germof historical materialism had already been present in the mind of aseventeen-year-old school-boy. It would be a mistake to think that, in hisearly writings, Marx was raising questions to which he would later produceanswers: his later work, coming as it did after the tremendous impact onhim of Hegel and the Hegelian School, contained quite different questions- and therefore quite different answers. In any case, the subsequentpassages of the essay, with their mention of physical or mental deficiencies,show that Marx here merely means that when choosing a career oneshould consider one's circumstances.Marx then went on to recommend that a career be chosen that conferred on a man as much worth as possible by permitting him to attaina position that was 'based on ideas of whose truth we are completelyconvinced, which offers the largest field to work for mankind andapproach the universal goal for which every position is only a means:perfection'.41 This idea of perfectibility was what should above all governthe choice of a career, always bearing in mind thatThe vocations which do not take hold of life but deal, rather, withabstract truths are the most dangerous for the youth whose principlesare not yet crystallised, whose conviction is not yet firm and unshakeable, though at the same time they seem to be the most lofty oneswhen they have taken root deep in the breast and when we can sacrificelife and all striving for the ideas which hold sway in them.4211 ere, too, commentators have tried to discover an embryo of Marx's later

TRIER,BONNANDBERLINIIidea of the 'unity of theory and practice'.43 Once again, this is to readinto Marx's essay much more than is there. All that Marx meant is thatthe sort of profession that deals with abstract ideas should be approachedwith special circumspection, for 'they can make happy him who is calledto them; but they destroy him who takes them overhurriedly, withoutreflection, obeying the moment'.44 The problem was above all a practicalone and not at al

Select Critical Bibliography, 434 . Index, 456. List of Plates 1 Marx's birthplace 2 Karl Marx, aged eighteen 3 Jenny von Westphalen 4 Friedrich Engels . enormous fourth-century basilica were enduring monuments of Trier's . 9 36 KARL MARX: A BIOGRAPHY imperial glory. In the Middle Ages the city had been the seat of a Prince-

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