Working With Families Affected By Domestic And Family Violence
WORKING WITHFAMILIES AFFECTEDBY DOMESTIC ANDFAMILY VIOLENCESUPPORTING GOOD PRACTICEChild and Youth Protection ServicesJanuary 2020
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF COUNTRYThe ACT Government acknowledges the traditionalcustodians of the Canberra region, the Ngunnawalpeople. We acknowledge and respect theircontinuing culture and contribution they make tothe life of this city and its surrounding region.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDEThis guide outlines Child and Youth Protection Services (CYPS)approach to understanding and managing domestic and familyviolence in the context of child protection and youth justicework in the ACT. It is intended for use by CYPS staff and itspartners working with the ACT’s children and young people.Specifically, this guide will tell you about: what is domestic and family violence drawn from latest research risk factors of family violence and understandingdifferent relationship and cultural contexts the impacts of family violence on children and mothers our practice approach to the assessment of family violence our approach to working with impacted families and people who useviolence through effective partnerships and safety planning the role of child protection and community partnersin addressing family violence in our work our commitment to supporting children and families affected by family violenceand keeping children at home with their birth parents wherever possible.This guide has been informed by various publications(see ‘References’), but most notably from: Dwyer, J and Miller, R (2014). Working with families where anadult is violent: Best interests case practice model Victorian Department of Human Services (2012). Family Violence RiskAssessment and Risk Management Framework and Practice Guides 1-3.WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE iii
READING THIS GUIDEIn reading this guide, the terms ‘child’ and ‘children’ also refer to ‘young person’ and‘young people’. The term ‘Act’ refers to the Children and Young People Act 2008.Throughout this guide you will notice this leaf symbol. Itrepresents a direct link between the guide’s informationand our CYPS practice standards. Our practice standardstranslate the legislation and principles that guide our workinto expectations about what it means when we work withchildren and their families, carers and other agencies.They guide our daily work and it is important to considerour practice standards in conjunction with this guide.This guide forms part of a suite of guides developed toprovide valuable information to you in your role.Other guides in the suite include: Working with families affected by cumulative harm or neglect Working with families affected by physical abuse Working with families affected by sexual abuse.Together these guides provide a complementary collection of information to enable youto understand and respond to different forms of child abuse and neglect in the ACT.The guides have been informed by, and are consistent with, research,legislation, policies and procedures. Together with our practice standardsand Case Management Framework, these guides set the benchmarkfor the delivery of high-quality practice in child protection.iv WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE
WHAT’S INSIDETHE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IIIREADING THIS GUIDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IVDOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE – WHAT IS IT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A DEFINITION1A GENDERED ISSUE1‘Mutual’ violence2THE IMPACT ON CHILDREN3UNDERSTANDING RISK FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4POST-SEPARATION7THE ROLE OF CHILD PROTECTION7FAMILY VIOLENCE IN DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIP AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9VIOLENCE BY AN ADULT TOWARDS THEIR LGBTIQA PARTNER9VIOLENCE TOWARDS AN OLDER PERSON IN A FAMILY OR FAMILY-LIKE RELATIONSHIP9VIOLENCE BY A CARER TOWARDS A PERSON LIVING WITH A DISABILITY10VIOLENCE BY AN ADOLESCENT TOWARDS A FAMILY MEMBER10VIOLENCE IN ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER COMMUNITIES10VIOLENCE IN CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE (CALD) COMMUNITIES11THE IMPACTS OF DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12IMPACTS ON CHILDREN12InfantsCumulative harmPost-traumatic stress disorder131313IMPACTS ON WOMEN14Women as mothers or other types of carersComplex traumaEffects of power and control tactics on a mother141415PRACTICE PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17ASSESSMENT17Assessing patterns of perpetrator behaviour – violence and coercive controlAssessing actions already being taken by Mum to protect her childrenAssessing the impacts of violence on the child and family functioningSAFETY PLANNING18181921WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE v
WORKING WITH COMMUNITY PARTNERSPrivacy and information sharingCase conferencingReferralsWORKING WITH PEOPLE WHO USE VIOLENCE AND CONTROLPerpetrator intervention programs for menPrograms for women who use violenceWorker safety fearsMeasuring positive change222324242525252627SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28KEY MESSAGES28REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33APPENDIX 1: FORMS OF FAMILY VIOLENCE – BEHAVIOURS33APPENDIX 2: FAMILY VIOLENCE ASSESSMENT TOOL36vi WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE
DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE – WHAT IS IT?The ACT Government considers domestic and family violenceone of the most serious issues we face as a community.A more detailed description of what may constitutedomestic and family violence is provided in section‘Understanding risk factors’ and at Appendix 1. Further,for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities,what is considered family violence is broader thanthe definitions above (see section ‘Family violencein different relationship and cultural contexts’).A DEFINITIONThere is no single definition for ‘domestic and familyviolence’. Instead the two are defined separatelywith a central element linking them together.Domestic violence is any act of violencethat occurs between people who have, orhave had, an intimate relationship.A GENDERED ISSUEFamily violence is broader. It is any act of violencebetween family members, as well as violencebetween intimate partners (domestic violence).The central element of both domestic and familyviolence is an ongoing pattern of behaviouraimed at controlling another person throughfear. This may include using violence, threateningviolence or other forms of coercive behaviour.Domestic and family violence includes physical, sexual,emotional, psychological and economic abuse. In mostcases, the violent behaviour, whether real or threatened,is part of a range of tactics to exercise power and controlover women and their children. Children do not needto directly witness the violence for its impacts to befelt by them and therefore to be harmed by it (s342,emotional abuse, Children and Young People Act 2008).The definitions of domestic and family violenceare provided in the following legislation:Data indicates domestic and family violence arethe most pervasive forms of violence experiencedby women in Australia. The National Plan to ReduceViolence against Women and their Children 2010-2022identifies domestic and family violence as a genderedcrime that has an unequal impact on women. Further,a gendered analysis of domestic violence by Adams(2015) recognises the underlying causes of violencetoward women may be embedded in society’s viewsabout gender, masculinity, relationships and power.While national and international evidence acknowledgesa small proportion of men are victims of domesticviolence, most people who experience this violence arewomen, in a home, at the hands of men they know. Datafrom the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2016, showsone in four women reported experiencing violenceby an intimate partner, compared to one in 13 men. Domestic Violence and Protection Orders Act 2008 (s13) Family Violence Act 2016 (s8).WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE 1
The experience of violence for men and women is alsodifferent. The Lookout, a Victorian website assistingprofessionals respond to family violence, states: Around 95 per cent of victims of all types ofviolence – whether women or men – experienceviolence from a male perpetrator (Diemer, 2015). A man is most likely to experience violence in aplace of entertainment and a woman is most likelyto experience violence in the home (Cox, 2015). Women are more likely to have experiencedviolence by a known person rather than astranger. The reverse is true for men (ibid). Men’s violence against women is more likely toinflict severe injury and to result from attemptsto control, coerce, intimidate and dominate thanwomen’s violence against male partners which ismore likely to be in self-defence when the malepartner is violent (Bagshaw & Chung, 2000). Women are also more likely to live in fear before, duringand after separation from a violent partner while malevictims are less likely to be afraid or intimidated (ibid)(as cited in The Lookout, 2016).PRACTICE TIPWhen working with children and families it isimportant to understand the gendered natureof domestic and family violence and the riskfactors that increase women’s vulnerability.This will help you effectively assess andrespond to their circumstances and implementappropriate supports for both mum and child.‘MUTUAL’ VIOLENCEWhile domestic violence by women towards theirmale partners is uncommon, women are oftenaccused of ‘mutual’ violence. Understandingthe concept of mutual violence is especiallyimportant when recording domestic violence.‘Mutually violent’ is a label often unfairly givento women who defend themselves or theirchildren by ‘fighting back’ or taking steps to assertthemselves against their violent partners.When men accuse women of violence, it can be genuinelydifficult to determine if someone is perpetrating orexperiencing violence. In such cases, it is extremelyimportant to assess patterns of control in therelationship and separately interview both parties,plus carefully question children to develop a clearerpicture of risk in the home and family functioning.When women are accused of violence, the contextfor the violence and the purpose or message ofthe violence must be clearly understood. Researchstrongly indicates the concept of mutual violencecan be used by perpetrators to justify their ownviolence and to reframe a woman’s attempt to protectherself and her child (Bagshaw & Chung, 2000).Mutual violence cannot exist in a power dynamic whereone partner physically and psychologically dominatesthe other. Women’s violence towards men is alsogenerally far less significant and almost never fatal.IMPORTANTWhen addressing acts of aggression, it isimportant not to confuse an act of resistanceor self-defence, with an attempt to overpoweror control. Where an act of violence is anisolated response to a partner’s patterned andsystematic use of violence against them, thisshould not be confused with mutual violence.Advice for how you are to record violence isprovided in section ‘Practice principles’.2 WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE
THE IMPACT ON CHILDRENAny violence in a child’s family life has the potential toaffect them. Children do not have to see, hear, or evenknow about violence to be harmed by it or to feel afraid.Research by Fox and Benson (2004) as cited in Bromfield(2010), highlights the multiple ways children may beaffected by family violence in Australia. These include: 37% of children are accidentallyhurt during family violence.There is growing recognition that outcomes ofexperiencing different types of maltreatment arehard to differentiate. Long-term exposure to multipleforms of child maltreatment is thought to result inwhat has been described as ‘cumulative harm’, whichhas similar effects to trauma, but with more specificoutcomes for children’s development and behaviour.These include aggression towards self and others,self-hatred, lack of awareness of danger and disturbedattachment behaviours (Price-Robertson et al., 2013).There are essentially many ways children canbe affected by family violence (Dwyer & Miller,2014, p.13) and it is important for you to beable to recognise these. It can include: 26% of children are intentionallyhurt during family violence. 49% of mothers are hurt whileprotecting their children. loss of attachment between the child and mother 47% of people who use violence use achild as a pawn to hurt the mother. loss of parental focus on the child’s needs 39% of people who use violence hurt mothersas punishment for a child’s behaviour parenting in a ‘fox hole’ – non-violent parentunable to relax and provide guidance to the childin an environment free from fear and anxiety 23% of people who use violence blame mothers fortheir own excessive punishment of their children. hypervigilance in the child increased stress levels that can impactthe child’s developmentChildren living in homes characterised by familyviolence are much more likely than the averagechild to experience physical or sexual abuse. Theco-occurrence of domestic and family violence withother forms of child maltreatment, including physical,emotional and sexual abuse, is well establishedin international research (Campo, 2015). Further,Edleson’s study in 1999, estimated domestic violenceis present in 30 to 50 per cent of families involved withthe child welfare system (as cited in Metheny, 2011). child exists in a state of fear and blame development of post-traumatic stress child may not develop impulse control child may use violence and aggression themselves difficulty in forming attachmentrelationships with others interpersonal problems behavioural problems.Studies have also found between 23 and 70 per centof men who use violence against their partners alsoabuse their children (ibid), and one study estimated50 per cent of women who are victims of violencehave been abused while stopping their partnerfrom abusing the children (Mbilinyi et al., 2007).Section ‘The impacts of domestic and family violence’provides detailed information on some of the possibleimpacts to children affected by family violence. Section‘Practice principles’ outlines our practice approachesto working with these children and their families.In 2008, a review by Herrenkohl and colleagues, examinedthe intersection of child abuse and family violence. Theiranalysis of over 500 studies found a considerable overlapbetween domestic and family violence and other formsof child maltreatment. They concluded child abusecompounds the effects of domestic and family violenceand increases the likelihood of psychosocial problemsin youth and adulthood (Herrenkohl et al., 2008).WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE 3
UNDERSTANDING RISK FACTORSPeople who use violence often exhibit behaviours that are warning signs for future,more serious events. These warning signs are also strong indicators of futurerisk to mothers and their children. Understanding such risks is instrumental toconducting an effective risk assessment to determine a child’s safety needs.Research shows some risk factors are associated withgreater likelihood and severity of family violence(see Table 1). When considering these factors, itis important to keep in mind they may interact inmany complex ways. Despite the co-occurrence ofcertain factors with family violence, none is causal.It is important that you understand family violenceoccurs in a diverse range of households across theentire community and remains largely undetectedand under reported (DHS Vic Framework, 2012).Table 1: Risk factors impacting on the likelihood and severity of family violence.Risk factorExplanationRisk factors for people experiencing violencePregnancy/new birth*Family violence often starts or intensifies during pregnancy and is associatedwith increased rates of miscarriage, low birth weight, premature birth,foetal injury and foetal death. Family violence during pregnancy is asignificant indicator of future harm to the woman and her child.Depression/mentalhealth issuePeople with a mental illness may be more vulnerable to experiencing family violence.Drug and/or alcoholmisuse/abusePeople who experience violence may use alcohol or other drugsto cope with the physical, emotional or psychological effects offamily violence. This can lead to increased vulnerability.Suicide threatsor attemptsSuicidal thoughts or attempts indicate the person is extremelyvulnerable and their situation has become critical.IsolationA person experiencing violence is more vulnerable if isolated from family,friends and other social networks. Isolation also increases the likelihood ofviolence and is not simply geographical. Other examples include systemicfactors that limit social interaction or support (for example lack of availableservices or inability to access transport) as well as the perpetrator notallowing the person experiencing the violence to have social interaction.4 WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE
Risk factorExplanationRisk factors indicating a possible escalation in a perpetrator’s behaviourUse of weapon inmost recent event*Use of a weapon indicates a high level of risk because previous behaviour isa likely predictor of future behaviour. A weapon is defined as any tool usedby the perpetrator that could injure or kill a person or destroy property.Access to weapons*Perpetrators who have access to weapons, particularly guns, are much more likelyto seriously injure or kill a person than perpetrators without access to weapons.Has ever harmedor threatened toharm the personPsychological and emotional abuse has been found to be a good predictor of continuedabuse, including physical abuse. Previous physical assaults also predict future assaults.Has ever tried tochoke the person*Strangulation or choking is a strong predictor for future domestichomicide. It is a common method used by men to kill females.Has ever threatenedto kill The person experiencing violence – Evidence suggests aperpetrator’s threat to kill the person is often genuine. The children – Evidence suggests where family violence is occurring,there is a likelihood of increased risk of direct abuse of children in thefamily. Children are adversely affected through experiencing violencedirectly and by the effects of violence, including hearing and/or witnessingviolence, or through living in fear due to a violent environment. Other family members – Threats by the perpetrator to hurt orcause actual harm to family members can be a way of controllingthe person experiencing violence through fear. Pets or other animals – A correlation between cruelty to animals and familyviolence is increasingly being recognised. Because there is a direct link betweenfamily violence and pets being abused or killed, abuse or threats of abuseagainst pets may be used by perpetrators to control family members.Suicide threatsor attempts*Threats or attempts to commit suicide have been foundto be a risk factor for murder-suicide.Stalking of the person*Stalkers are more likely to be violent if they have had an intimaterelationship with the person. Stalking, when coupled with physicalassault, is strongly connected to murder or attempted murder. Stalkingbehaviour and obsessive thinking are highly related behaviours.Sexual assault ofthe person*Men who sexually assault their partners (including rape, coercedsexual activity or unwanted sexual touching) are also morelikely to use other forms of violence against them.Previous or current breachof protection orderBreaching protection order conditions indicates the perpetrator is notwilling to abide by the orders of a court. Such behaviour should beconsidered a serious indicator of increased risk of future violence.Drug and/or alcoholmisuse/abuse*A serious problem with illicit drugs, alcohol, prescription drugs orinhalants leads to impairment in social functioning and creates a risk offamily violence. This includes temporary drug-induced psychosis.WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE 5
Risk ve and/or excessive jealous behaviour toward a partner is often relatedto controlling behaviours and has been linked with violent attacks.Controlling behavioursMen who use controlling behaviours and think they ‘should be in charge’ aremore likely to use various forms of violence against their partner. Examplesof controlling behaviour include the perpetrator telling the person how todress, who they can be friends with, how much money they can access,and determining when they can see friends and family or use the car.Unemployment*Unemployment is associated with an increased risk of lethal assault,and a sudden change in employment status, such as being terminatedand/or retrenched, may be associated with increased risk.Depression/mentalhealth issueMurder-suicide outcomes in family violence have been associated with peoplewho use violence who have mental health problems, particularly depression.History of violentbehaviourPeople with a history of violence are more likely to use violence against familymembers, even if the violence has not previously been directed towards familymembers (such as directed towards strangers, acquaintances and/or police). Thenature of the violence may include credible threats or use of weapons and attemptedor actual assaults. Men with a history of violence generally engage in more frequentand more severe family violence than perpetrators who do not have a violent past.Risk factors related to relationshipsRecent separation*Women experiencing family violence are most at risk immediately prior totaking separation action, and during the initial stages of or immediately afterseparation. Those who stay with the perpetrator because they are afraid to leave,often accurately anticipate leaving would increase the risk of lethal assault. Thedata on time-since-separation suggests women are particularly at risk withinthe first two months after separation. See section ‘Post-separation’ below.Escalation*Violence occurring more often or becoming more severe has been found tobe associated with lethal outcomes for people experiencing violence.Financial difficultiesLow income (less than that required to provide for basic needs) and financialstress, including a gambling addiction, are risk factors for family violence.* May indicate an increased risk of the person experiencing violence being killed or almost killed.(DHS Vic Framework, 2012, pp.26-28)6 WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE
POST-SEPARATIONThe period following a separation is one of increasedrisk of injury to women escaping violence. The NSWDomestic Violence Review Team (2017) reported, 65per cent of women killed by a former intimate partnerbetween 2000 and 2014 had ended their relationshipwithin three months of being killed. Further, a reportby ANROW and AIFS (2017) found even after separatingmore than two years prior, a high rate of continuedconflict and control remained. The risk of violence wasalso higher if there was violence prior to separation.Threats to hurt or kidnap children, stalking andharassment affect up to one-third of women wholeave violent relationships (Hardesty & Ganong, 2006;Saunders, Faller & Tolman, 2012). Hooker et al. (2016)state: ‘Abusive men have been reported to use childrento get back at their partners, manipulating situationsfor their own gains and to control and disrupt familydynamics. Intense undermining of the mother’sauthority, threats, and manipulating children’s favourare common tactics of perpetrators post-separation’.Hooker et al. go on to say: ‘Women are often theinitiators of separation and/or divorce proceedingsfrom abusive men. This separation challenges theirpartners’ control over them, resulting in an escalationof violence (Hardesty & Ganong, 2006) and the use ofchildren as tools to continue abuse and to pressurewomen for reunification (Bancroft & Silverman, 2004;Bancroft et al., 2012)’ (as cited in Hooker et al., 2016).Australian population survey data collected in 2012for the Longitudinal Study of Separated Families(n 9028) reveals just over two-thirds of separatedmothers reported experiencing emotional abusefrom their ex-partner in the 12 months before thesurvey (five years post-separation) (Qu et al., 2014).Data also indicates post-separation shared parentingarrangements may also compromise child safety.In a survey involving 65 Australian children, almosthalf the children reported not feeling safe in sharedarrangements and felt three times more unsafewith their father than with their mother (Bagshawet al., 2011). Women and children may continueto be at risk when abusive fathers have ongoingand unsupervised contact with their children.There is considerable research related to violenceor risks of violence following separation. In additionto the above, some further key findings are: increased risk of child abduction and childhomicide (Bancroft & Silverman, 2004;Cussen & Bryant, 2015; Kirkwood, 2012) false and vexatious claims about mothers to police,lawyers and child protection authorities aimed atseparating mothers from their children (Hardesty &Ganong, 2006; Saunders, Faller & Tolman, 2012) more women reported safety concerns forthemselves and their children than men (7.3%versus 2.3%), with 92 per cent naming the fatheras the source of their concerns – men whoreported were more likely to name another adultor the mother’s new partner (Qu et al., 2014).PRACTICE TIPIt is important when working with childrenof separated families to realise a child’srisk does not necessarily reduce becauseseparation has taken place. Mothers cancontinue to be coerced by violent ex-partnersregardless of living separately. This maymanifest in ways such as mothers breakingterms of a Domestic Violence Order andallowing their violent ex-partner to come toher home. Such situations need to be carefullyconsidered from an informed perspective thatrecognises a person’s control over anothermay take a long time to lose its power.THE ROLE OF CHILD PROTECTIONFamily violence is a fundamental violation ofhuman rights and unacceptable in any form,community or culture. All family violence shouldbe considered a risk and must be responded to.The most effective way to create safety for a child is tocreate safety for their mother. Creating safety for womenand children means taking action to address and preventthe violence being used against them. This meansworking to assess and strengthen the parenting capacityof both parents, and to engage with the perpetrator asa father to address the impacts of their behaviour.WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCE 7
Family violence occurs because of a choice made bythe perpetrator, and responsibility for that choice restssolely with them. Remember, this choice exists in aparticular cultural and social context that includesa power imbalance between men and women.Best practice in working with families experiencingfamily violence requires you to help the violent personto take responsibility for their violence and its impacts.When a violent parent becomes accountable for theiruse of violence and is challenged to take responsibilityfor their actions, there is potential for growth anddevelopment and therefore positive change.PRACTICE TIP /IMPORTANTAny CYPS response to family violence must beinformed by a risk assessment of the nature andpatterns of the coercive control and violence.Wherever possible, our involvement will seekto protect a mother and her child from violencewhile keeping them together. Separating achild from their non-violent parent is alwaysan action of last resort and hopefully atemporary, safety solution. We are committedto working effectively with survivors of familyviolence to keep their children safe at home.We understand to do so, we need to workwith fathers who use violence to help themunderstand the impact their choices have ontheir child, partner, family and rights as a parent.See section ‘Practice principles’ for moreinformation and practice advice about howyou are to conduct a risk assessment.8 WORKING WITH FAMILIES AFFECTED BY DOMESTIC AND FAMILY VIOLENCEOUR STANDARD IN PRACTICEChild and youth-centred practiceRecognise early intervention isbetter for children and familiesand ensure linkage to services andsupports as early as possible.Identify parental and familystrengths and support themto meet the child’s needs.
FAMILY VIOLENCE IN DIFFERENTRELATIONSHIP AND CULTURAL CONTEXTSFamily violence can occur in all kinds of families and family relationshipsextending beyond intimate partners, parents, siblings and blood relatives.
identifies domestic and family violence as a gendered crime that has an unequal impact on women. Further, a gendered analysis of domestic violence by Adams (2015) recognises the underlying causes of violence toward women may be embedded in society's views about gender, masculinity, relationships and power.
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employment. Families with one child are most likely to have both parents in full-time employment (40 per cent). Families with two children are more likely to split employment so that fathers work full-time and mothers work part-time (41 per cent). In couple families with three or more dependent children, 41 per cent have just one parent in .
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