Cost Optimal Operation Of Thermal Energy Storage System With Real-Time .

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ICCAIS 2013: Main TrackICCAIS 2013Cost Optimal Operation of Thermal Energy Storage Systemwith Real-Time PricesToru Kashima, Member, IEEE and Stephen P. Boyd, Fellow, IEEEAbstract— In this paper we propose a method to optimizeoperation of a thermal energy storage (TES) system for heating,ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) in terms of electricitycost. We pose this optimization problem as a mixed integerlinear programming (MILP) problem where future thermaldemand and electricity prices are predicted. The proposedmethod uses a branch and bound algorithm to solve theproblem, using linear relaxation of the integer variables thatrepresent future on-off states of the equipment. We conductsimulations based on real building data, which show thatsignificant cost reduction can be obtained.I. INTRODUCTIONCutting peak electricity demand has been a serious issuein Japan especially after the Great East Japan Earthquake in2011 since the country’s electricity supply capacity significantly declined mainly due to shut down of almost all of thenuclear plants [3]. Considering building energy consumption,using thermal energy storage (TES) is one of the mosteffective ways to cut peak demand. TES is a concept ofstoring energy in the form of heat or cold for future use [2].If electricity price is higher through peak time, consumershave an incentive to use a TES system to shift their demand.To use a TES system cost-effectively, for example, theoperation for the next day is defined taking account ofthermal demand for the TES system and electricity pricesfor the next day [4]. The problem can be treated as amixed integer linear programming (MILP) problem if truethermal demand and true electricity prices are given. Thetrue thermal demand can’t be obtained beforehand; thereforethermal demand prediction is necessary and the predictionerror can lead to deterioration of the result [4]. The same canbe said for time varying real-time prices. Real-time energypricing is not yet introduced on a large scale in Japan at thispoint (in June 2013). But in the near future this structurewill become more common as smart grid is introduced [4].In this paper we propose a method to operate a TES systemcost-effectively under the condition that thermal demandprediction has an error and the real-time pricing rate structureis introduced. The proposed method uses a branch andbound algorithm with a custom linear programming (LP)solver which is generated by CVXGEN [1] to solve theMILP problem consecutively. While the branch and boundalgorithm is executed, some of integer variables, whichManuscript received June 15, 2013.Toru Kashima is with Azbil Corporation,Kanagawa,represent on-off statuses of equipment in the future, remainlinearly relaxed.We developed a MILP solver in C using the proposedmethod and conducted simulations based on real buildingdata. The results were compared to the conventional operations.II. PROBLEMA. Thermal Energy Storage SystemA TES system we consider in this paper consists ofthermal energy storages and heat sources such as chillers.Energy resources such as electricity or natural gas are boughtfrom suppliers at certain prices. For simplicity, we assumethat there is only one kind of energy resource, electricity.The electrical energy is transformed into thermal energy bythe heat sources. The thermal energy has to meet the demandfrom the downstream air-conditioning system. Thermal energy storage systems can store thermal energy for a while.In other words the storages can delay the timing of thermalenergy usage from electricity energy usage. Fig. 1 shows theenergy flow of a TES system.In Fig. 1, ns is the number of storages (with its ownchiller) and nd is the number of support chillers which areused when the stored energy is insufficient.B. MILP FormulationThe characteristics of the chillers and the support chillersare represented as[i] [i][i][i] [i][j] [j][j][j] [j]lu x[t] u[t] hu x[t]lv y[t] v[t] hv y[t]Japan.t.kashima.74@azbil.comStephen P. Boyd is with Information Systems Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, CA, USA.Fig. 1.boyd@stanford.edu978-1-4673-0813-7/13/ 31.00 2013 IEEE227Energy flow of thermal energy storage system(1)

ICCAIS 2013ICCAIS 2013: Main Trackwhere i means the i-th chiller and j means the j-th support[i][j]chiller; u[t] and v[t] are thermal energy generated by the i-th[i][j]chiller and j-th support chiller at time t, respectively; lu , lv ,[i][j]hu and hv are the lower and upper bounds on the generated[i][j]thermal energy. x[t] and y[t] are integer (Boolean) variableswhich represent on (1) or off (0) of the i-th chiller and thej-th support chiller at time t respectively.The characteristics of the storages are represented as[i]z[t 1] [i](1 )(z[t][i][i]lz z[t] [i]0 w[t][i][i] u[t][i]hz [i]w[t] )(2)[i]d[t] nsXi[i]w[t] ndX[j]v[t](3)iwhere d[t] is the demand at time t.The cost function f is expressed as [j][i]ndnsTXXv[t]u[t] X p[t] f [i][j]t 1j cyi cx[i](4)[j]where p[t] is the electricity price at time t. cx and cy are thecoefficients of performance (COP) of the i-th chiller and thej-th support chiller respectively. The objective of the problemis to minimize f .From (1)-(4), the problem is defined as a standard MILPform (5):minimize f (x̃)subject to Ax̃ b(5)Gx̃ hwhere x̃ (x, y, z, u, v, w, ); x {0, 1}ns T , y {0, 1}nd T ,z Rns T , u Rns T , v Rnd T and w Rns T are[i][j]the variable vectors and the elements of those are x[t] , y[t] ,[i]III. METHODA. Branch and Bound AlgorithmWe use a branch and bound algorithm [7] to solve theproblem (5). The algorithm finds the global minimum of afunction f : Rn R over an n-dimensional set, or searchspace, Qinit . This section shows the general algorithm.For a space Q Qinit we define[i]where z[t] is stored energy in the i-th storage at time t; u[t] isinput energy at time t for the storage, which is output energy[i]of the chiller connected to the storage at the same time; w[t]is output energy of the storage at time t; [i] is the heat loss[i][i]coefficient of the i-th storage; lz and hz are the lower andupper bounds of the stored energy in the i-th storage.The demand for the TES system must be equal to theoutput of the system. This relation is represented as[i]horizon control, RHC) method, using predictions of futuredemand and prices; see, e.g., [6].[j][i]z[t] , u[t] , v[t] and w[t] (i 1, 2, . . . , ns ; j 1, 2, . . . , nd ;t 1, 2, . . . , T ), respectively; A, b, G and h are constantmatrices and vectors and the elements of those are easilydefined from (1)-(4).The problem (5) is an operation scheduling problem thatis to decide how to operate the heat sources and the storagesat time t 1, 2, ., T .However, the demand d[t] can’t be obtained beforehand inpractice; therefore it is necessary to build a demand predictor.The electricity price p[t] is also unknown if the real-timepricing rate structure is introduced. To handle this we use astandard model predictive control (MPC; also called receding978-1-4673-0813-7/13/ 31.00 2013 IEEE228Φ(Q) inf f (x).x Q(6)We also define Φlb and Φub which compute lower and upperbounds on Φmin , respectively:Φlb (Q) Φmin (Q) Φub (Q).(7)The branch and bound algorithm has two procedures:one is called “branching” and the other “bounding.” Thebranching procedure splits a search space into two smallerspaces. The bounding procedure computes lower and upperbounds.The two procedures are iterated one after the other untilthe difference between the minimum of the lower boundsand the minimum of the upper bounds becomes lower thanthe tolerance that is set in advance.If Φlb (QI ) Φub (QII ) where QI Qinit , QII Qinitand QI QII , then the search space QI can beeliminated from consideration obviously. This procedure iscalled “pruning”. Pruning is not necessary to be done whilethe algorithm proceeds, but it can reduce computer storagerequirements.The algorithm (without pruning) is summarized below.k 0;L0 {Qinit };L0 Φlb (Qinit );U0 Φub (Qinit );while Uk Lk , {pick Q Lk for which Φlb (Q) Lk ;split Q into QI and QII ;form Lk 1 from Lk by removing Qand adding QI and QII ;Lk 1 : minQ Lk 1 Φlb (Q);Uk 1 : minQ Lk 1 Φub (Q);k : k 1;}(8)where k is the iteration index; Lk denotes the list of searchspaces; Lk and Uk denote the lower and upper bounds forΦmin (Qinit ) at the end of k iterations; is the tolerance.

ICCAIS 2013ICCAIS 2013: Main TrackB. Linear RelaxationTo apply the branch and bound algorithm above to theproblem (5), linear relaxation given below is used:minimize f (x̃)subject to Ax̃ bGx̃ h[i]0 x[t] 1(9)since the solution is less affected by the erroneous futureprediction.Another good point of (10) is that the calculation timebecomes shorter. If the electricity price changes in realtime, to respond to the change as soon as possible is vitalto achieve a cost-effective operation. The parameter ts isadjusted considering the cost efficiency of the operation andthe calculation time.[j]0 y[t] 1[i]x[t]IV. SIMULATIONS[j]y[t]whereandare not Boolean variables. The problem(9) is a linear programming (LP) problem; this can be solvedby an LP solver.The optimum value of (9) is a lower bound L0 of theoriginal problem (5). An upper bound U0 is obtained by[i][j]rounding each x[t] and y[t] of the solution of (9) to 0 or 1. Ifthe rounded solution is infeasible, the upper bound is .The branching procedure is to pick one element from x ory to fix its value to 0 and 1. Our method picks the elementwhich has the closest value to 0.5 regarding the solution of[1]the problem (9). If the picked element is x[1] , for example,[1][1]the inequality constraints of x[1] is changed to 0 x[1] 0[1]to generate one new problem. On the other hand, 1 x[1] 1 is used instead to generate the other new problem. Thesenew problems are also LP; branching and bounding can bedone as well. These procedures are iterated to obtain thesolution of the problem (5).The reason why we change the inequality constraintsinstead of adding new equality constraints is that we usea custom LP solver generated by CVXGEN [1]. CVXGENexploits the sparsity of a problem to generate a fast QP solverwhich uses primal-dual interior point methods with Mehrotrapredictor corrector. (QP obviously includes LP.) The customLP solver solves the problem very rapidly but the structure ofthe problem must remain the same. If the branch and boundalgorithm splits the problem changing inequality constraintsas we mentioned above, the structure does not change.C. Linear Relaxation in the FutureHere we define the problem instead of (5) to cope witherroneous demand prediction and real-time pricing.minimize f (x̃)subject to Ax̃ bGx̃h( [i]x[t] {0, 1} (t ts )[i](10)0 x[t] 1 (ts t)(We developed a MILP solver in C using the methodmentioned above to conduct simulations based on real datafrom an office building in Japan. The data were sampledevery hour in July, August and September 2010.We developed a demand predictor also, using an ordinarylinear regression model. We used 2008 and 2009 data tomake the model. The model uses past outside enthalpy,past residual and future workday/holiday flag as the inputvariables. The model can predict the demand for 1-24 hoursin advance.The actual demand d[t] was obtained from the building’senergy management system. Table I shows the values of theparameters used in the simulations.We used a laptop PC described below to conduct thesimulations: Lenovo ThinkPad T420 with Intel Core i7(2.70GHz), Microsoft Windows 7 Professional 64 bit andMicrosoft Visual C 2010 as a compiler.A. Fixed Prices with Demand PredictionFirst we conducted simulations where the electricity priceswere fixed and known. Table II shows the prices based on areal contract between the building’s owner and an electricitysupplier.TABLE IPARAMETERS FOR S IMULATIONSSymbolsns , ndT[1] [2]lu , lu[1][2]hu , hu[1] [2]lv , lv[1][2]hv , hv[1] [2]lz , lz[1][2]hz , hz[1] [2] [1] [2]cx , cx , cy , cy [1] , [2] ,Values224 (hour)0.13 (GJ)1.3 (GJ)0.098 (GJ)0.98 (GJ)0.0 (GJ)8.6 (GJ)3.00.01[j]y[t] {0, 1} (t ts )[j]TABLE IIE LECTRICITY P RICES0 y[t] 1 (ts t)where ts is a threshold; the branch and bound algorithm we[i][j]use picks x[t] or y[t] only if t ts to split the problem. Thismeans that it is not necessary to decide on-off statuses of theequipment in the future further than ts . Using the solutionof (10) instead of (5) the result can be more cost-effective978-1-4673-0813-7/13/ 31.00 2013 IEEE229TimePeak (13:00-17:00)Day (8:00-13:00, 17:00-22:00)Night (22:00-8:00)Prices (JPY/kWh)12.710.59.3

ICCAIS 2013: Main TrackICCAIS 2013The owner had an incentive to shift electricity demandfrom peak time to day time or night time considering theprices.We executed demand prediction and optimization for 24hours in the future every hour for the three months. Wechanged ts from 1 to 24 and calculated the total electricitycosts. The average calculation time was also measured.B. Real-Time PricingSecondly we conducted another simulation under the realtime pricing rate structure. We made simulated prices addingnoise with normal distribution, σ N (0, 12 ) JPY, to theprices shown in Table II. The simulated prices in the futureare unknown when the optimization was executed. Theoriginal prices are the unbiased estimators; therefore we usedthe prices as p[t] . The parameter ts was set to 1 becausethe future prices are unknown. The total cost was comparedto the cost of the conventional operation which would beexecuted in practice.We used the same demand predictor as in the previoussimulations.Fig. 3.Total electricity costs as the threshold ts increasesV. RESULTSA. Fixed Prices with Demand PredictionThe demand predictor’s error is shown in Fig. 2. The rootmean squared error (RMSE) of the prediction becomes largerin the further future. This suggests that a precise operationscheduling for the whole period is useless when the demandpredictor is used.Fig. 3 shows the total electricity costs as ts is changedfrom 1 to 24. As expected from Fig. 2, the total cost issmall when ts is small.Fig. 4 is a semi-log plot of the average calculation timefor each ts . The calculation time increases exponentially asts becomes larger. The shortest calculation time was 0.009sec when ts 1. Even the longest calculation time 2.896 secwhen ts 24 was short enough since the simulations werebased on one hour data. However, if the scale of the problembecomes larger and the price changes more frequently, theproposed method will be more useful.And then, we compared the cost when ts 1 to theconventional operation in Fig. 5.Fig. 2.Demand prediction error978-1-4673-0813-7/13/ 31.00 2013 IEEEFig. 4.Average calculation time as the threshold ts increasesFig. 5 shows that our method can reduce the total cost by4.3%.B. Real-Time PricingFig. 6 shows the total costs of the simulation with realtime pricing when ts 1 and the conventional operation.The result shows that our method can reduce the total costby 7.6% if the real-time pricing rate structure is introduced.The reduction was more significant in comparison to theprevious results when the electricity prices were fixed.Fig. 5.230Total electricity cost comparison

ICCAIS 2013: Main TrackICCAIS 2013R EFERENCESFig. 6.Total electricity cost comparison under real-time pricing ratestructureVI. CONCLUSIONSTo optimize the operation of a TES system, the proposedmethod takes advantage of linear relaxation of the integervariables which represents on-off statuses of the equipmentin the future. The method is useful when the demand prediction is erroneous and the real-time pricing rate structureis introduced.The simulations based on the real building data with thereal electricity prices showed that the method could reduceelectricity cost by 4.3%. It was also shown that if the realtime pricing rate structure is introduced the method canreduce electricity cost by 7.6%.The simulations also showed that the calculation time ofthe proposed method was short enough even if the real-timepricing rate structure is introduced in practice.978-1-4673-0813-7/13/ 31.00 2013 IEEE231[1] J. Mattingley and S. Boyd, “CVXGEN: a code generator for embedded convex optimization,” Optimization and Engineering, 13:1-27,Springer, 2012.[2] Z. Zhang, H. Li, W. D. Turner, and S. Deng, “Optimal Operationof a Chilled-Water Storage System with a Real-Time Pricing RateStructure,” Trans. of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, andAir-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Vol. 117, Part 1, 2011.[3] T. Imanishi, J. Nishiguchi, T. Konda, R. Dazai, and C. Kaseda,“Building Energy Savings via SaaS/ASP utilizing Data Modeling,”Proc. of The First International Conf. on Universal Village, Beijing,2013.[4] J. Nishiguchi, A. Kurosaki, C. Kaseda, S. Kitayama, M. Arakawa,H. Nakayama, and Y. Yun, “Robust Optimal Operation for BuildingHVAC Systems with Uncertainty in Demand Prediction,” Proc. of the57th Annual Conf. of the Institute of Systems, Control and InformationEng. (ISCIE), Kobe, May 15-17, 2013.[5] M. Yamamoto, Y. Nakamura, K. Kuriyama, and T. Matsuyama, “Optimum Control of Heating and Cooling Plant with Nonlinear OperationCharacteristics,” Trans. of the Society of Heating, Air-Conditioningand Sanitary Engineers of Japan, No. 122, May 2007.[6] J. Mattingley, Y. Wang, and S. Boyd “Receding Horizon Control:Automatic Generation of High-Speed Solvers,” IEEE Control SystemsMagazine, 31(3):52-65, June 2011.[7] V. Balakrishnan, S. Boyd, and S. Balemi, “Branch and bound algorithm for computing the minimum stability degree of parameterdependent linear systems,” Int. J. of Robust and Nonlinear Control,1(4):295-317, October-December 1991.[8] H. Asano, M. Takahashi and N. Yamaguchi, “Market Potential andDevelopment of Automated Demand Response System,” IEEE Powerand Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, CA, 2011.[9] Z. Li, Z. Huo and H. Yin, “Optimization and Analysis of OperationStrategies for Combined Cooling, Heating and Power System,” Powerand Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), 2011 Asia-Pacific,March 2011.[10] L. Xie, Y. Gu, A. Eskandari, and M. Ehsani, “Fast MPC-BasedCoordination of Wind Power and Battery Energy Storage Systems,” J.Energy Eng., 138(2), 43-53, 2012.

The electrical energy is transformed into thermal energy by the heat sources. The thermal energy has to meet the demand from the downstream air-conditioning system. Thermal en-ergy storage systems can store thermal energy for a while. In other words the storages can delay the timing of thermal energy usage from electricity energy usage. Fig. 1 .

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