Auckland's Low Emission Bus Roadmap - Auckland Transport

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Contents Auckland's Low EmissionBus RoadmapDecember 2018Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 1

ContentsContents0.1 Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.0 INTRODUCTION101.1 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.2 Challenges to the 2040 goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.0 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICY FRAMEWORKS142.1 Climate change and air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.2 Electric vehicle programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.3 Auckland policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163.0 STRATEGIC CONTEXT173.1 International context – uptake of battery electric buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.2 Auckland context – environment and health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.3 Auckland context – the city’s bus fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.0 DEVELOPING THE LOW EMISSION BUS ROADMAP224.1 Assessment of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.2 Roadmap methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.0 ASSESSMENT OF EARLY TRIALS AND STRATEGIC OPTIONS255.1 City LINK e-bus trial early results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.2 Assessing transition and ownership options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276.0 COST ASSUMPTIONS AND IMPACTS296.1 Capital costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306.2 Operational, maintenance and renewal costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307.0 FINANCING OPTIONS328.0 NEXT STEPS34Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Appendix 1: City LINK e-bus trial data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Appendix 2: Assessment of implementation and funding options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Appendix 3: Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018

Contents About AT and our Sustainability FrameworkAuckland Transport’s role as a transport provider and mobility integrator is rapidly evolvingto meet and anticipate fast-paced changes in how people in successful cities want andneed to travel. We play an active role in shaping a growing, vibrant Auckland with moresustainable and networked modes of transport, and in integrating the diverse new ways ourcustomers will be more mobile.20 Viaduct Harbour Avenue, Auckland 1010Darek.Koper@AT.govt.nzdoadanelectric vehiclesnewin t02heAucklaortnspTrandfleetA focus of Auckland Transport’s SustainabilityFramework is low emission transport choices,which mitigate climate change, improve airquality and reduce the city’s reliance on fossilfuels. One of the framework’s key actions is todevelop a Low Emission Bus Roadmap. AT’sStatement of Intent 2019-2021 commits todevelopment of this roadmap in the 2018/19year. Our customers are overwhelmingly withus on this journey – the majority of over 18,000submissions on the Regional Land TransportPlan 2018-2028 agreed that transport’s impacton the environment is a key challenge.Contact:Darek Koper, Manager Bus Services, AT MetroService Delivery Integrated Networksr Meeting our wider environmentalcommitments such as the Paris Agreementand the C40 Fossil-Fuel-Free StreetsDeclaration.he The adoption of low emission vehiclesCopyrightThis report is open source and may be citedand shared for the purposes of furtheringthe global research and development of lowemission bus technologies.ont Encouraging mode shift from cars to publictransport, walking and cyclinga transition to a low emission bus fleetare identified for development by AT andits partners.Two e-busesThe Auckland Transport Alignment Project(ATAP) aligns central and local governmentpriorities for land transport. These prioritiesinclude:The Low Emission Bus Roadmap presents abaseline for transition of the Auckland bus fleetto a low emission fleet, with key milestonesat 2020, 2025 and 2040. The baseline will beupdated and reviewed regularly as technologyadvances and costs reduce. Current barriers toAuckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 3

Contents0.1 Executive summary4 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018

Contents The pathway to cleaner air for Auckland by eliminating diesel buses fromthe city's roads.2040full zero emission bus fleet2025procure only zero emission buses2019 - 2025further low emission bus trialsMay 2018pilot two e-buses on City LINKAuckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 5

ContentsThis Low Emission Bus Roadmap is a baseline thought piece and tactical documentthat outlines the pathway to transition Auckland’s bus fleet to zero emissions by 2040.The roadmap reviews the policy and bus market context, assessment of bus technologyand fleet options and associated benefits, costs and challenges for this transition.It also outlines next steps.In Auckland, diesel vehicles are estimatedto be responsible for 81% of all vehiclerelated air pollution health costs,estimated at 466 million annually.In November 2017, the Mayor of Aucklandjoined 11 other cities in signing the C40Fossil-Fuel-Free Streets Declaration. Thedeclaration commits Auckland to buying onlyzero emission buses from 2025 and ensuring amajor area of the city is zero emission by 2030.In the context of these commitments,AT is targeting a full zeroemission bus fleet by 2040.Approximately 1,300 diesel buses are inoperation in Auckland, with variable fleetsizes, Euro standards and deck configurations.Full conversion of Auckland’s bus fleet tozero emission vehicles will reduce life cyclegreenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from busesby 72%, and eliminate the tail-pipe emissionsof the various oxides of nitrogen (NOx) andparticulate matter (PM). This result wouldtail-pipe emissionsof nitrogen oxides(NOx) and particulatematter (PM)ZERO6 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018deliver significant benefits to the environmentas well as to the health of the local population.Over 20 cities globally have made policycommitments to stop purchasing diesel busesand have zero emission bus targets. In 2017,only 10% of the global bus stock operated aslow emission vehicles but given the pace ofinternational development and deploymentof electric bus technology in terms of bothtechnical capability and commercialisation AT’s long-term vision for a full zero emissionbus fleet by 2040 is thought to be achievable.Life cycle analysis and trial of optionsWe have worked with the Low CarbonVehicle Partnership (LowCVP) in the UKas we progressed to developing this LowEmission Bus Roadmap. Life cycle evaluationof the range of low and zero emission bustechnologies and fuels shows that batteryelectric buses (BEV or e-bus) will deliversignificantly lower GHG emissions comparedto conventional diesel buses, benefiting fromNew Zealand’s renewable electricity grid. BEVs72%less life cyclegreenhouse gasemissions (GHG)from electric buses

Contents have a 65% share of the global low emissionbus market and are the most commonlyadopted technology. From 2018, AT is triallingtwo e-buses on the City LINK service, withpositive results in terms of service reliability,customer feedback and operational savings.The preferred strategic option forimplementing the replacement programme ofzero emission buses (ZEV) is for bus operatorsto purchase the vehicles and AT to specifyfor all contracts that from 2025 new busesfor end-of-life replacements and fleet growthmust be zero emission vehicle-only. Thisoption meets the C40 commitment for zeroemission-only purchases from 2025. To achieve100% ZEV before 2040 under the preferredstrategic option, and to reduce the risk ofoperators being stranded with diesel buses,AT would specify and advise bus operatorsearly that all remaining diesel buses ( 18%of total fleet) must be removed from serviceby 2040 and replaced with ZEV. This willallow bus operators to plan their replacementahead of the 2040 deadline. A 2025 startdate enables Auckland to benefit from furthertechnology developments in the interim andgives AT more time to prepare the necessaryinfrastructure. This will be reviewed andupdated as part of the next roadmap update.The roadmap also recommends a ‘quick win’opportunity for the City LINK service to be runby fully electric buses from November 2020when a new service contract is due to start.Challenges to reaching the 2040 goalThere are challenges ahead. TransitioningAuckland’s bus fleet involves high capitaloutlay and set-up costs, although the capitalcosts of both e-buses and lithium ion batteriesis expected to fall as battery technologyimproves and market competitivenessincreases (see Figure 01). The wide varietyof bus makes, models and ages, makesretrofitting existing buses with batteryelectric or plug-in hybrid propulsionexpensive. Some questions remain aboutservice longevity of the batteries and their‘green’ bottom line across their life cycle.Finance issuesSupport for further trials may come froma combination of the Energy Efficiencyand Conservation Authority’s (EECA) LowEmission Vehicle Contestable Fund and AT.The total operating costs of e-buses shouldreduce over time, as the increased PeakVehicle Requirement (PVR) contract ratedue to higher capital costs will be offset bythe lower operational in-service km rate.Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 7

ContentsNext steps with this roadmap Continue to collaborate with internationalorganisations such as C40 and otherNew Zealand cities to share learningGiven its early stage and iterative nature,the next steps with the roadmap are toadopt and progress its principles and: Continue to undertake trialsand demonstrations. Establish a national Low Emission BusWorking Group of industry stakeholdersto influence national policy includingfiscal incentives, growing the market,and facilitating supply chainsThe roadmap will be refined and updatedon a 12-18 month basis as furthermarket information becomes available,technology advances and outcomesof further trials are confirmed. 6.00 5.86 5.75 5.50 5.25 5.00Figure 1: The capital cost of electric buses (shown below in thousand USD) ispredicted to reach parity with diesel buses by 2030 as the cost of batteries falls.Capital costs are offset by reduced operating costs, as shown (left) in the 2018trial of two e-buses on Auckland’s City LINK. 4.75 4.50 4.25 4.00 3.75 3.50 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.50600 2.25150 2.00500 1.7579400 1.50 1.2598 1.44665749433820222024202620282030300 1.00 0.75200 0.50100 0.25 0.00Cost per circuitdiesel busCost per circuitelectric bus0201620182020e-bus vehiclee-bus batterydiesel busSource: Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Notes: e-bus witha 250kWh battery, initial battery price at 600/kWh.8 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018

Contents Timeline to 2040Figure 2 identifies some key decision and intervention points on the timeline to 2040 for a full lowemission bus fleet.2018 Low emission busworking group Research: zeroemission buses,opportunitycharging, the grid City LINK e-busx 2 trial Further zeroemission trial on380 Airporter2020 Infrastructuretrials, includingopportunitycharging trials Full City LINKe-bus fleet Further zeroemission bustrials includinghydrogen2024 New PublicTransportOperatingModel (PTOM)contracts AT possiblyinvests instrategic ZEVdepot20302025 C40 fossil-fuelfree streets– 2025 zeroemission busprocurementdeadline Fossil-fuel-freestreets in partsof Auckland2040 All buses are ZEV Grid upgradedto support ZEVbuses and fleet AT possiblyinvests in ZEVdepots New procurementis zero emissionbuses onlyContracts: Review PTOM performance, introduce new/renew contractsTrials: City LINK, Airporter 380 and other routesLegislation: Monitoring and reviewInfrastructure: Upgrading bus depot locations and associated infrastructure eg. gridRegulations: Improving Vehicle Dimensions and Mass (VDAM) and introduce fiscal incentivesFigure 2: Timeline for implementing Auckland’s Low Emission Bus Roadmap.Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 9

Contents1.0 Introduction10 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018

Contents This Low Emission Bus Roadmap was initially developed as a thought piece inpartnership with the Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership (LowCVP) in the UK and TransportResearch Laboratory (TRL) Limited. Their final report of January 2018 assessedthe challenges and opportunities inherent to Auckland’s context, and the range ofpotential low emission options for the city’s bus fleet. Alongside this report, AT hasinvestigated a set of potential implementation and indicative funding scenarios toidentify preferred options and pathways to a full low or zero emission fleet by 2040.verification (obtained through trialsand further information) that the pricedifferential between zero emission anddiesel buses has reduced as forecast:Auckland Transport’s Low EmissionBus Roadmap 2018: Outlines the strategic context, includingpolicy and opportunitiesa. For single-deck buses – Aucklandtransitions to a battery electric newbus solution from 2025 replacingdiesel fleet at the end-of-life and asnew fleet will be required for annualgrowth and new contracts, and takesinto account overnight depot chargingand on-route ‘opportunity’ charging.A possible future hydrogen fuel celltechnology may also be used. Identifies the research, trials anddemonstrations of new technologiesbeing undertaken Identifies the barriers that need to beresolved in order to fully electrify Auckland’sbus fleet over the next two decades Analyses and evaluates the range of lowemission bus technologies and fuels Estimates the total cost of ownership ofnew technologiesb. For double-deck buses – as forsingle-deck buses, but recognisingzero emission capable, large doubledeck vehicles are still developingand a slower uptake may berequired for all new contracts fromthe start of 2025. A possible futuretechnology could be electric busesfitted with hydrogen fuel cells. Assesses the potential implementationand financing options Identifies next steps to be taken.1.1 RecommendationsThe LowCVP and TRL Low EmissionBus Roadmap report made a series ofrecommendations that we have reviewedand further refined as follows:3.1.AT targets a full zero emission bus fleetby 2040.The trial and demonstration of newtechnologies has been invaluablein other cities and this approach isrecommended strongly in Auckland.Demonstration trials should include:2.All buses in Auckland are to be procuredas zero emission vehicles from 2025 atthe latest and preferably earlier, subjectto refined cost/benefit analysis anda. Battery electric buses (single anddouble-deck) with depot andon-route charging (rapid plug-incharging, inductive and pantograph)Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 11

Contentsb. Hydrogen electric trials (incorporatinghydrogen supply)c. Retrofitting of existing Euro 5diesel buses with electric and/orhydrogen fuel cell technology.These trials will guide local and nationalpolicy development and validate roadmaprecommendations.4.A ‘quick win’ start on a larger-scale trialof the City LINK electric bus servicefrom November 2020 when the currentbus contract for that route is renewed.5.As part of the iterative review ofthe roadmap, undertake a detailedassessment of all Auckland busroutes for BEVs and charginginfrastructure deployment, and currentfleet replacement life cycles.6.7.Assess the practical and cost impact ofa large electric bus fleet deploymenton Auckland’s electricity supply grid.Establish a Low Emission Bus WorkingGroup, to include a range of publicand private national regulatory,operational and supply stakeholders.8.Continue to engage with internationalorganisations such as the C40 LowEmission Vehicle Network to help expandknowledge and understanding of thedeployment of low emission buses.9.Collaborate with other cities inNew Zealand to increase influenceon central Government policies, toshare learning and to cooperatewith vehicle procurement.12 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 201810. To support long-term sustainability andreduce the end-of-life environmentalimpacts of zero emission buses,engage with central Governmentand the automotive industry putmeasures in place for the re-use andrecycling of lithium batteries.1.2 Challenges to the 2040 goalA number of important barriers have beenidentified in the LowCVP and TRL report,and are set out below. Some of these willneed to be resolved in order to electrify AT’sbus fleet fully over the next two decades:Regulatory and financial1.Weight restrictions imposed by VehicleDimensions and Mass (VDAM) regulationsare presently restricting adoption andcapacity of some battery electric buses,both for single and double-deck vehicles.2.High upfront capital costs ofbattery electric buses and retrofitlow emission technologies.3.The high set-up cost of electric charginginfrastructure, including upgrade ofthe power distribution network toaccommodate overnight chargingloads at most or all depots and widerimplications for the electricity industry;and potential requirement for roadside‘opportunity’ charging infrastructure,which could de-limit the numberof routes BEVs can operate on.4.Potential for high renewal costof batteries, as longevity inservice remains uncertain.

Contents 5.The lack of national fiscal incentivesto support the development of a lowemission bus market in New Zealand.8.Lack of procurement and ownershipmodels for low emission buses,charging/refuelling infrastructureand depots to retain competitionbetween bus operators.9.Alternative hydrogen fuel cell technologyis not yet developed in New Zealandand requires third-party hydrogenproduction and infrastructure.Low emission bus market6.The wide variety of bus makes,models and ages of AT’s contractedbus fleet could make any retrofittingof battery electric or hydrogen fuelcell electric buses expensive.7.Lack of established supply chainsand after-market support. An addedchallenge is that bus manufacturersdo not currently produce three-axlebattery electric buses, and three-axledouble deck electric buses are only inthe early stages of development.10. Questions remain as to the ‘green’bottom line of batteries across theirwhole life cycle and hydrogen fuel.Bus operators’ perspectives11. Bus operators’ lack of confidence innew low-emission bus technologies,being uncertain of their performance.Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 13

Contents2.0 National and regional policyframeworks14 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018

Contents The Low Emission Bus Roadmap has been developed in the context of recent national andregional policies and frameworks.2.1 Climate change and air qualityExperience around the world reveals thatGovernment policy has played an instrumentalrole in helping to stimulate the market for lowemission buses and associated infrastructure.Policies include: Introducing subsidies and grants Allocating funding for demonstrationtrials of new technologies Setting vehicle emission targets.New Zealand is a part of internationalclimate change negotiations under theUnited Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC), the KyotoProtocol and the Paris Agreement. NewZealand ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016setting a target to reduce GHG emissionsto 30% below 1990 levels by 2030.There is now a greater focus by theGovernment on climate change, which includesan Independent Climate Change Commission,a Zero Carbon Act, and a potentialnational target of zero carbon by 2050.New Zealand benefits from a diverse rangeof energy sources, with abundant fossil fueland renewable energy resources. Eightypercent of this country’s energy is derivedfrom renewable energy. The very low carbonintensity of electrical power in New Zealandmakes the electrification of transportparticularly attractive. Currently there are nocoal-fired power plants in the South Island.Hydroelectric power is the dominant formof electricity generation, with wind andsolar beginning to contribute more to theenergy mix. The North Island’s electricitygeneration is much more diverse, includingnatural gas, oil, hydroelectric, geothermal,coal and wind. All petroleum products fortransport use are imported. This meansthat there are energy security benefits inmoving away from fossil-fuelled transport.New Zealand has adopted the VehicleExhaust Emissions Regulations, aimedat reducing road transport air pollutionemissions. These currently require newheavy-duty vehicles, including urban buses,to meet the Euro 5 standard as a minimum.Auckland’s current fleet is operated by arange of diesel Euro 3 to Euro 6 standardbuses. (See figure 6 on page 21.)2.2 Electric vehicle programmeA package of measures was announced bythe previous Government in 2016 aimedat increasing uptake of electric vehicles.Examples of the measures are listed below; it isimportant to highlight that these are focussedprimarily on light duty vehicles (mainly cars):a. A target to double the numberof electric vehicles in NewZealand every year to reachapproximately 64,000 by 2021.b. Extending the Road User Charge(RUC) exemption on light electricvehicles until they make up 2%of the light vehicle fleet.c. A new RUC exemption for heavyelectric vehicles until they makeup 2% of the heavy vehicle fleet.d. Government agencies are coordinating activities to support thedevelopment and roll-out of publiccharging infrastructure includingproviding information and guidance.Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 15

Contentse. A Low-Emission Vehicle ContestableFund of up to NZ 6 million peryear to encourage and supportinnovative low-emission vehicleprojects (administered by EECA). The Auckland Plan Low Carbon Auckland The City Centre Master Plan AT’s Sustainability Framework.Auckland Council has a statutory obligationto meet national emission standards for airquality. Over recent years concentrations ofair pollutants such as fine particulate matter(PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NOx) and sulphurdioxide (SO2) have stabilised in Auckland.However, heavily trafficked areas of thecity centre can experience higher emissionconcentrations and breach air quality targets.2.3 Auckland policy frameworkAuckland Council’s sustainability objectivesfocus on reducing greenhouse gas and airpollution emissions and lowering reliance onfossil fuels. Aligned with these objectivesis the ambition to expand the adoption oflow emission vehicles and to reduce car usethrough greater adoption of sustainablemodes of transport. Key plans that supportthese aims and objectives include:tWQuay SttesomsSyCustFigure 3: Auckland road transportemissions profile, including city centreair quality hotspots.CustotStstHobThe orange dots represents locationswhere weekly concentrations of NOxexceed the proposed annual AucklandAmbient Air Quality Standards(AAAQS) and the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) standards of40µg/m3.gihuTanStAlbeFort StWyndhamQueensonStrt Stsont EaStSwanmSa StWolfe SGorensFaStweahStAnThese air quality hotspots arelargely clustered around major roadTe Taouintersections and busy bus routes,Res Railwaywhich coincide with areas ofGardenshighpedestrian traffic areas.zaSt ETherefore, we are concentrating onReserveurbanParliamentroutes first.City LINK has thehighest profile and operates in areasof highest public exposure, hence our2018 trial area.Ideally we are seekingConstitutionto initially focusHillour cleanest busesin areas with the highest numbers ofpeople.estes SttWPrincey ShenleslKitcAlbert ParkNOx µg/m323 .39 - 30 .00anleySt30 .01 - 35 .00St35 .01 - 38 .0038 .01 - 40 .00Stdsonm16 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018Grafton Rd40 .01 - 47 .60SyWeler StastveBeach Rden ABowveVictoriacAhener StKitcNgaoho ReserveFraserParkParnellRise

Contents 3.0 Strategic contextAuckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018 17

ContentsAn assessment of the current Auckland bus fleet profile has been undertaken and itscontribution to environmental impacts in the city and region.3.1 International context – uptakeof battery electric busesIn 2017, there were over 340,000 lowemission vehicles operating ( 10% ofglobal bus stock) with a large proportionin China ( 75% of the clean bus market).Battery electric buses have a 65% share ofthe global low emission bus market and arethe most commonly adopted technology.Plug-in hybrid buses are the next mostpopular technology, serving 18% of thelow-emission bus market. Hybrid buseshave the third highest take up at 12%. Asiahas the largest market share of batteryelectric, hybrid and plug-in hybrid buses.A technology to watch or to trial early will behydrogen fuel cell. Other parts of the world arein the early trial stages with favourable results,Biomethane6,472Hydrogen fuel cellPlug-in hybridHybrid131however costs remain high for implementation.3.2 Auckland context – environmentand health impactsA review of the main sources of CO2, NOxand PM10 (particulate matter) emissions inAuckland shows that road transport is thelargest source of greenhouse gas emissionsand accounts for 34.8% of emissions.Cars are responsible for the highest roadtransport GHG (24%), with commerical vehiclesbeing the next largest emission source (11%).This highlights the importance of encouragingAucklanders to make the shift from privatevehicles to sustainable public transport.Continuing health research has revealed thatpersistent exposure to relatively low levels ofair pollution can contribute to or exacerbatehealth problems. These include respiratory9,300 B 20 biodiesel63,70342,041Figure 2: Global technology share of the low emission bus market.18 Auckland Transport Low Emission Bus Roadmap 2018229,593 Battery electric

Contents National and regional funding is still available in Europe, US, China, and Canadato support zero emission capable buses and EV charging infrastructure, to helpreduce high capital costs. For example, 100m ( 197.5m) has been put aside inthe UK alone for bus subsidy grants between FY 17/18 and 20/21. In 2017, thisequated to 326 low emission (mostly electric or hybrid electric) buses in the UK.Europe has far more aggressive targets for greenhouse gas emission-freecity centres, with penalties/charges for not complying.More than 20 cities globally have made policy commitments to stop purchasingdiesel buses and have zero emission bus targets. London will have a totalzero emission bus fleet by 2037. Twelve major cities including Auckland,signed the C40 Fossil-Fuel-Free Streets Declaration in 2017 which: Pledges to buy only zero-emission buses from 2025 Ensure the major area of their city is zero emission by 2030.Wellington (Tranzit) - 10 fully electric double deckers were rolled out inWellington in July 2018, with another 22 to be added by 2021. They will operateon main arterial roads between the suburbs of Island Bay and Churton Park.These buses are two-axle and only have a similar capacity as AT’s three-axlesingle-deck buses.Christchurch (Red Bus) – Have ordered three single-deck fully electric busesidentical to the ones AT is running on the City LINK).Figure 4: The international and New Zealand context.and cardiovascular conditions and reduced lifeexpectancy. Children are par

AT's long-term vision for a full zero emission bus fleet by 2040 is thought to be achievable. Life cycle analysis and trial of options We have worked with the Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership (LowCVP) in the UK as we progressed to developing this Low Emission Bus Roadmap. Life cycle evaluation of the range of low and zero emission bus

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