Weed Management Plan

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Weed Management Plan2016joondalup.wa.gov.au

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica)

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Contents1.0 Introduction1.1 Strategic Context2.0 Impact of Weeds4462.1 What are Weeds?62.2 Why Weed Management is Important72.3 The Effect of Climate Change on Weeds 73.0 Background on Weed Control3.13.23.33.48Physical Weed ControlChemical Weed ControlThermal Weed ControlBiological Weed Control81014154.0 Natural Areas Weed ionsStudy AreaWeed Management Site PrioritisationWeed MonitoringWeed PreventionWeed ControlPartnerships5.0 Parks and Urban LandscapingAreas Weed nsStudy AreaService AgreementsWeed Management Site PrioritisationWeed MonitoringWeed PreventionWeed Control16161618202224282929292932323737396.0 Weed Control in Wetlands427.0 Education and Training447.1 Community Education7.2 Training8.0 Implementation8.1 Reporting8.2 Management Plan Review8.3 Recommendations4445464646469.0 References5210.0 Appendices541

2City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Acknowledgements Mr Jon Dodd, Senior Researcher, Department of Agriculture and Food WA. Mr Les Holden, Station Officer, Department of Fire and Emergency Services.City of Joondalup Authors and Contributors to Weed Management Plan Manager Operation Services, Diplomas in Horticulture and Turf Management, 37 years relevant experience. Principal Environmental Project Officer, Postgraduate Diploma in Policy Studies specialising in EcologicallySustainable Development, Murdoch University, nine years experience specifically in environmental management. Coordinator Park Operations, Diploma in Project Management, Trade Certificate in Horticulture – LandscapeGardening, 20 years industry experience. Coordinator Natural Areas and Capital Works Projects, Certificate in Horticulture Studies, Diploma in ProjectManagement, Advanced Diploma of Management, 32 years relevant experience. Team Leader Projects, Diploma in Project Management, 10 years experience specifically in landscapemanagement. Team Leader Natural Areas, National Diploma in Horticulture, Diploma in Project Management, Certificate3 Environmental Science (Management), 37 years relevant experience. Supervisor Natural Areas, Bachelor of Science Honours (Environmental Management), Edith Cowan University,Diploma in Project Management, 15 years relevant experience.Please formally acknowledge the City of Joondalup if you choose to use any of the content contained withinthe Weed Management Plan.Suggested citation:City of Joondalup, 2016, Weed Management Plan, Joondalup, WA.

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan nitionCommercial Business PrecinctCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research OrganisationDepartment of Agriculture and Food WADepartment of Environment and ConservationDepartment of Fire and Emergency ServicesDepartment of Parks and WildlifeDepartment of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and CommunitiesNo dateNursery Industry Accreditation Scheme AustraliaNatural Resource ManagementPedestrian Access WayParks and Public Open Spaces Classification FrameworkQuality Management SystemSpecified Area RatesWestern AustraliaWestern Australian Local Government Association3

4City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 20161.0 IntroductionThe City of Joondalup (‘the City’) is situated along theSwan Coastal Plain, with its southern boundary locatedjust 15 kilometres from the Central Business District ofPerth. The City covers an area of 99 square kilometreswhich encompasses a diverse range of natural areasincluding 17 kilometres of coastal foreshore, a chainof wetlands and a variety of bushland ecosystems.The City also includes over 370 parks and reserves aswell as a substantial number of urban landscaping areas.Weed management is conducted within the City byCity staff, contractors and the valuable contributionsfrom community members in 14 Friends Groups. FriendsGroup members voluntarily work to protect, preserve andenhance significant bushland areas in the community. TheWeed Management Plan complements the voluntarywork of Friends Group volunteers.The City is bounded by the City of Wanneroo to the eastand north, the City of Stirling to the south, and the IndianOcean to the west.The purpose of the Weed Management Plan alignswith the City of Joondalup Strategic EnvironmentalFramework outlined in Figure 1. Details of the relevantlocal, State and Federal legislation policies, plans andstrategies are outlined in Appendix 3.The City is located within the southwest Australianbiodiversity hotspot, one of 35 biodiversity hotspots in theworld, with over 2,900 endemic plant species occurringin this region.1 There are a number of regionally, nationallyand internationally significant natural areas located withinor adjacent to the City including Yellagonga RegionalPark, Marmion Marine Park and Neerabup National Park.There are seven Bush Forever sites within the City thatcontain species of high conservation value.The Weed Management Plan has been developed inorder to provide strategic ongoing weed managementof the City’s natural areas, parks and urban landscapingareas over the next five years and protect nativevegetation and ecosystems in natural areas as well asthe amenity, functionality and aesthetics of parks andurban landscaping areas. Weed management isconducted in the City to differing degrees, dependingon the type of site. Weed management of natural areasis more extensive than weed management in parksand urban landscaping areas, due to the difference inbiodiversity values. Section 4 of the Plan refers to weedmanagement in natural areas, whilst section 5 of thePlan details weed management in parks and urbanlandscaping areas.The Weed Management Plan details an integratedweed management approach which prevents, monitorsand controls the spread of weeds in the City. The Plandescribes the potential environmental impacts fromweeds, weed control methods, the City’s current weedmanagement approach and proposes managementstrategies to be implemented over the life of the Planin order to minimise potential impacts.1Conservation International (2014)1.1 Strategic Context

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Geraldton Carnation Weed (Euphorbia terracina)Figure 1: City of Joondalup Strategic Environmental FrameworkStrategic Community Plan 2012 – 2022Environment Plan 2014 – 2019City Water Plan2016 – 2021YellagongaIntegratedCatchmentManagement Plan2015 – 2019BiodiversityAction Plan2009 – 2019Climate ChangeStrategy2014 – 2019Issue Specific PlansWeedManagement PlanBushfire RiskManagement Plan(Draft)PathogenManagement Plan2013 – 2016WasteManagement Plan2015 – 20205

6City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 20162.0 Impact of WeedsThe City manages large areas of bushland, many ofwhich are recognised as having local and regionalsignificance; however the invasion of weeds threatensthe diversity of these natural areas. Weeds are a keymanagement issue for the City’s natural areas andthreaten the biodiversity values they contain.The City also contains large areas of parks and urbanlandscaping areas. The invasion of weeds in these areasaffects the amenity, functionality and aesthetics andimpacts upon community use of the sites.2.1 What are Weeds?Weeds are plants that grow in natural ecosystems wherethey are not naturally occurring and proceed to modifynatural processes, usually adversely, resulting in thedecline of the communities they invade.2 A weed usuallyrequires some form of action to reduce its effects on theeconomy, the environment, human health and amenity.3Weeds can establish themselves in terrestrial, aquaticor marine ecosystems.2There are two types of invasive weeds: exotic plantsthat have been introduced and native species that havemoved into new areas in response to changed landand water use and management practices.3Weeds typically produce large numbers of seeds andspread rapidly, invading natural areas, parks and urbanlandscaping areas. Weeds can be spread by: Dispersal of seeds by water, wind, birds, animals,human or vehicle movement Site activities Underground root systems Mulch, soil and plant stock Garden rubbish dumping Fire.4Yearly growth patterns of weeds vary with some speciesgrowing in summer and seeding in autumn and othersgrowing in winter and seeding in spring. The life cycle ofweeds also varies, with weeds being classified as either: Annual: Weeds which germinate, grow, set seed anddie in one season or year, such as Wild Oat, VeldtGrass, Paterson’s Curse and Cape Weed.Biennial: Weeds which live for up to two years,usually growing and flowering in the first year andsetting seed in the second, such as Bridal Creeper.Perennial: Weeds which live for three years or more,such as Geraldton Carnation Weed or Gazania.6Weeds account for approximately 15% of all flora inAustralia, with this figure increasing by approximately10 species per year.4 Over 27,000 known weed specieshave been introduced to Australia and 10% of those arenow considered to be established (have existed for a longtime). Escaped garden plants are the main source ofAustralia’s weeds, accounting for 66% of recognisedweed species.5DPaW (1999)NRM Ministerial Council (2007)4Australian Government (2012b)5Groves, Boden and Lonsdale (2005)236CRC for Australian Weed Management (2005a)

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 20162.2 Why Weed Managementis ImportantWeeds are one of the major threats to Australia’s naturalenvironment and biodiversity and can change the naturaldiversity and balance of ecological communities. Weedshave major environmental, economic, and social impactsin Australia.Impacts on the natural environment from weeds include: Reducing the viability of native plant species bycompeting more vigorously for space, water andnutrients.7 This can result in a decrease in theabundance and health of native species, evento the point of extinction in that area.Reducing natural diversity by smothering native plantsor preventing them from regenerating after clearing,fire or other disturbance.Altering nutrient recycling and soil quality by fixingnitrogen in the soil which can inhibit the germinationof native species or releasing nutrients into the soilwhich may impact negatively on native seedlinggermination and growth.Introducing pests and disease from different areaswhich native species may not have previously hadcontact with and may be particularly susceptible to.Weeds can also be more resilient than native plantsto certain pests and diseases.Creating high fuel loads for fires and increasingthe risk of fire in bushland areas.8Negatively impacting on native fauna by replacingor reducing the native plants and altering plantcommunities that animals use for shelter, foodand nesting.9Weeds can have social impacts on communities bydegrading parks, verges, median strips, public accessways and natural areas. Weeds can cause such areasto become degraded and less usable. Weeds impactthese areas by lowering the amenity, functionality andaesthetics of sites and make these areas less usableby the community.A number of weed species have also been linked tohealth conditions. For example, some common weedscan cause asthma and other respiratory problems,especially in children, cause skin irritation or arepoisonous.72.3 The Effect of Climate Changeon WeedsGlobal climate change will impact on temperature, rainfall,wind strength, and intensity and frequency of extremeweather events. Predicting the exact scale and natureof climate change at a local level is challenging, and theeffect on ecosystems is likely to be complex. The southwest of Western Australia is likely to experience changesin the frequency, duration and intensity of droughts,floods, storms, heatwaves and fire.10 These conditionscreate favourable environments for weeds as they aregenerally able to respond rapidly to disturbances enablingweed species to move into new areas or out-competenative species in their existing range.11Climate change has the potential to increase thepresence of weeds by: Australian Government (2012a)FESA (2011)9City of Joondalup (2012a)Creating opportunities for weeds to establish throughincreased extreme events and resulting disturbanceto natural areas.Providing weeds that are more readily able to adaptto future climates with a competitive advantage overnative species.Altering distribution patterns of weed and nativespecies.Increasing activity from sleeper weeds which mayappear benign for many years, but have the potentialto suddenly spread rapidly following certain naturalevents such as flood, fire, drought, climate change,or change in land or water management.12Australian Government (n.d.)Australian Government (2012)12Australian Government (2013)7108117

8City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 20163.0 Background on Weed ControlThe City undertakes an integratedweed management approach to itsweed control in natural areas, parksand urban landscaping areas includinguse of a variety of herbicides, a varietyof herbicide application methods andhand weeding.In determining the appropriate weed control methodfor a given situation the City takes the following intoconsideration: The target weedThe season and timing i.e. before seedingResistance of the weed to specific herbicidesSite location and any special considerationsi.e. near wetlands Weather conditions i.e. rain and wind Rotation of the type of herbicide used to reduceherbicide resistance Effectiveness of outcomes, labour intensity requiredand cost involved.Weed control involves using a number of methodsto reduce weed infestations to manageable levelsor if possible to eradicate infestations. Potential weedcontrol methods include: Physical weed control – the removal of weeds byphysical or mechanical means, such as mowing,grazing, mulching, tilling, burning or by hand.Chemical weed control – the use of selective andnon-selective herbicides to affect the growth of theweed and cause it to die. Thermal weed control – the application of hot wateror steam to a weed plant causing it to die. Biological weed control – the introduction of aweeds natural enemy (could be an insect or pest,fungi or disease) to reduce its spread and growth.There are many aspects that need to be taken intoconsideration when determining appropriate methodsof weed control in natural areas, parks and urbanlandscaping areas. The types of weed control availableto the City and their advantages and disadvantages aredescribed in sections 3.1 to 3.4 and detailed in Appendix 6.Further discussion on the use of weed control in particularlocations and circumstances is provided in section 4.6.2.3.1 Physical Weed ControlThere are several types of physical weed controlmethods, including: Mechanical or manual – for example hand removal,hand tools, harrows, tractor hoes, brushcuttersand mowers. Smothering – using materials such as wood chips,newspaper or black plastic. Mulching – using organic matter.Smothering and the use of mulch are not suitable fornatural areas as it would also prevent the growth of nativeseedlings. Mechanical methods using large pieces ofequipment or machinery would also create too muchdisturbance to the native vegetation and soil surface.The physical removal of weeds through hand weedingcan be appropriate in some circumstances. Advantagesand disadvantages of hand weeding are provided inTable 1.Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Hand Weeding13Hand WeedingAdvantagesDisadvantages Young plants can be easy to pull out if soil is moist.Allows for selective removal of weeds.Can be effective for small infestations.Avoids the use of herbicides. 13CRC for Weed Management (2004)Can be difficult to remove plants if soil is dryor plants are large.Is time consuming and labour intensive.Digging can cause soil disturbance and disturbthe root systems of native vegetation.Can result in trampling and destruction ofunderstorey and shrubs (particularly if there are alarge number of people conducting hand weeding).Is not effective for large infestations.Can make the area more vulnerable to erosion.

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Whilst hand weeding has been found to be moretime consuming and labour-intensive and less effectivethan herbicide use, it can form an important part ofan integrated weed management approach. Handweeding using hand tools can be used and may besuitable for many annual species and for relatively smallinfestations. Hand weeding is particularly useful for thecontrol of herbicide resistant weeds or when herbicidesare unable to be used. However it is mainly used forsmall infestations or as a follow-up to other methods.The City undertakes a small amount of hand weeding.A substantial amount of hand weeding is conducted byFriends Groups volunteers who contribute significantlyto weed control in 17 natural areas within the City.An example of the physical weed control method of handpulling is shown in Figure 2.Figure 2: Hand Pulling Method141DIG DOWN214Department of Planning (n.d.)LOOSEN SOIL3PULL UPWARDSTAP ROOT INTACT9

10City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Sydney Wattle (Acacia longifolia)3.2 Chemical Weed ControlChemical weed control through the use of herbicides canbe an effective and practical method of weed controlapplicable in a variety of situations.15 Herbicides aredefined as ‘a chemical substance used to destroy orinhibit the growth of plants, especially weeds’.16Herbicides can be selective i.e. work on a specific rangeof plants or can be broad spectrum/non-selective andwork on a wide variety of plants. There are also a numberof ways in which herbicides can be applied dependingon the situation to ensure specific weeds are targeted.17Herbicides are an important and effective componentof integrated weed management and are generallyrecognised as being the most effective weed controlmethod having higher success rates than other formsof weed control. They are also generally the mosteconomical means of weed control, requiring lesslabour, fuel and equipment than other methods.15In some situations herbicides offer the only practical,cost-effective and selective method of managingcertain weeds.18Department of Primary Industries (2011)Houghton Mifflin Company (2009)17CRC for Australian Weed Management (2005a)1516However, herbicides are chemicals and do have thepotential to damage the environment including otherplants, fauna and people. The effect of applyingherbicides on the environment varies depending onthe target weed, chemical properties, rate, distributionand the soil environment. Herbicides vary in the lengthof time that they persist in the environment. The greaterthe solubility in water of a herbicide, the larger thedistance that it can move through the soil. As well asimpacting targeted plants, herbicides can impact onother aspects of the environment such as insects,bacteria, fungi, algae, non-targeted plants, soil andwater. Figure 3 outlines some common processesthat may occur following herbicide application.1718Australian Government (2012b)

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Figure 3: Processes that may occur following Herbicide Application17What happens to a herbicide after application?VOLATOLISATIONSome herbicides will readily‘evaporate’. They must beincorporated into the soilto reduce losses.TARGET PLANTNON-TARGET PLANTHERBICIDESOIL EROSIONMovement of soil canmove herbicides too.PHOTODECOMPOSITIONUltraviolet light breaksdown some herbicides.LEACHINGPLANT UPTAKEWater soluble herbicidescan move down throughthe soil in water.Some unaffectedplants can takeup and detoxifyherbicides.In water, solubleherbicides can move intothe root zone andimprove effectiveness.In water, solubleherbicides canmove and killnon-target plants.ANIMAL UPTAKESome worms, nematodesand insects consumeherbicides from the soil.MICROBIAL BREAKDOWNSome bacteria, fungi andalgae in the soil break downherbicides by using themas food.ABSORPTIONHerbicides attachto surfaces in thesoil, permanently, orare slowly releasedinto soil water.SOIL PARTICLEIn water, herbicides canmove out of the root zoneand reduce effectiveness.In water, soluble herbicidescan move causingenvironmental contamination.11

12City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum and non-selectiveherbicide effective on annual and perennial plants.Glyphosate currently has the highest global productionvolume of all herbicides. Glyphosate has been registeredby the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary MedicinesAuthority (APVMA) for over 40 years and there are around200 products containing glyphosate registered for usein Australia.The City of Joondalup utilises herbicides in accordancewith permits, regulations and label instructions applicableto the specific herbicide. The City endeavours to treatweeds prior to seed set in order to minimise spread.In 2015 reports investigating the health effects of usingglyphosate were released by IARC, an agency affiliatedwith the World Health Organisation (WHO), the reportsclassified glyphosate as ‘probably carcinogenic tohumans’, following a hazard-based, assessment ofpublicly available scientific information. The IARCassessment looked at the intrinsic ‘hazard’ of thechemical glyphosate as a cancer-causing agent only.Other components of the toxicity of glyphosate arenot taken into account.Following the release of this report the AustralianPesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA)undertook several investigations to determine the risksfor people using the formulated chemical product. AsAustralia’s agricultural and veterinary chemical regulator,it is the role of the APVMA to consider all relevantscientific material when determining the likely impactson human health and worker safety including long andshort term exposure to users and residues in food beforeregistering a product. The APVMA considered the fullrange of risks which include studies of cancer risksand how human exposure can be minimised throughinstructions for use and safety directions.The APVMA, in collaboration with the Office of ChemicalSafety in the Department of Health, examined the basisfor the IARC classification including review of the fullmonograph related to glyphosate. The APVMA releasedthe findings of its investigations in May 2016 whichconcluded that products containing glyphosate aresafe to use as per the label instructions.When herbicides, such as glyphosate, are used correctlythey can be very effective and have limited negativeimpact on the environment.17 The correct applicationof herbicides involves knowing the target weed,understanding the site conditions, choosing thecorrect herbicide, choosing the correct applicationmethod, ensuring operators are trained and ensuringall regulations and label instructions are followed.CRC for Australian Weed Management (2005a)Department of Agriculture and Food (n.d.)20WeedScience.org (2013)1719Certain weeds can become resistant to herbicides withrepeated application, meaning that herbicides are nolonger effective to control those species. There arecurrently 25 weed species in Australia with populationsthat are resistant to at least one herbicide group.19 Fiveare present in Western Australia and are also presentwithin the City: Mediterranean Turnip (Brassica tournefortii) Patersons Curse (Echium plantagineum) Wimmera Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) Wild Oat (Avena fatua) Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum).20An integrated weed management approach will reducethe likelihood of weeds becoming resistant to a particularherbicide and will ensure a more effective responseto those weeds that are resistant.The advantages and disadvantages of chemicalweed control are provided in Table 2.Sensitive FacilitiesThe City considers the following as sensitive facilities: School or pre-school Kindergarten Childcare Centre Hospital Community Health Centre Nursing Home.Herbicide use adjacent to sensitive facilities is subjectto the City’s assessment of authorised chemicalsprocess. Additional consideration is given to the timingof herbicide application in the vicinity of sensitive facilitiesto minimise potential impacts.Pesticide Use NotificationCity residents wishing to be advised in advance ofspraying activities, occurring within 100m of theirresidence, can apply to be added to the City’s NotificationRegister. Residents listed on the Pesticide NotificationRegister will receive an automated notification at least24 hours prior to spraying commencing. Furtherinformation on the Pesticide Use Notification Plancan be found on the City of Joondalup’s websiteat joondalup.wa.gov.au

City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 2016Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Chemical Weed ControlChemical Weed ControlAdvantagesDisadvantages Is usually the most effective form of weed control.Is cost effective for large infestations.Can be selective (depending on choice of herbicide,timing, plant life cycles, operator skills).Can prevent weeds seeding and spreading.Is appropriate on small and large weed infestations.Minimises direct soil disturbance. The City also displays ‘caution’ signage in areas whereherbicides are being applied and until the herbicide hasdried. This signage is placed at appropriate locations inall directions to allow the public sufficient warning. Amarker dye is mixed with herbicides to indicate wherespraying has been conducted in natural areas, other thanon dual use paths. The purpose of marker dyes is for staffor contractors spraying herbicides to see which areashave been sprayed, rather than to alert the public aboutspraying. Caution signage is used to alert the public toavoid areas being sprayed. Herbicide Use ProceduresWhen using herbicides the City: Uses herbicide products registered by the AustralianPesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority.Follows all regulations and label instructionsapplicable to the specific herbicide.Complies with the Department of Agriculture andFood Western Australia’s (DAFWA) Permit to AllowMinor Use of an Agvet Chemical Product for theControl of Environmental Weeds in Various Situations. Weeds can become resistant to particularherbicides.Some herbicides may be soluble in water andtherefore may not be appropriate in wetland or othersensitive areas.Some herbicides are non-selective and can impacton other plants and animals.Has potential for negative impacts on the broaderenvironment, such as causing environmentalcontamination.Herbicide residue can build up in the soil and affectthe growth of native species.Technical proficiency is required otherwise there maybe operator/public hazards.Complies with the relevant Department of Healthdocuments such as: A guide to the use of pesticides in WesternAustralia. A guide to the management of pesticides in localgovernment pest control programs in WesternAustralia. Quick contacts for the use of pesticides in WA. Health (Pesticides) Regulations 2011 – SignageRequirements. Guidelines for the safe use of pesticides in nonagricultural workplaces.Acts in accordance with its internal procedures whichoutline instructions for training, transport, handling,storage, resident notification, application, records,spills and use of new herbicides.Consults resources, such as the DPaW’s Florabasewebsite or Southern Weeds and their Control(DAFWA Bulletin 4744), in regards to best practicetiming and methods of weed control for individualweed species.Undertakes assessment of authorised chemicals todetermine whether or not more suitable alternativesare available and which also meet safety requirementsand reduce potential environmental impacts. The Cityminimises the use of herbicides, where possible.13

14City of Joondalup Weed Management Plan 20163.3 Thermal Weed ControlThermal weed control involves applying hot water underpressure through a heated chamber on to the weed.The combination of heat and water pressure breaksdown the cellular structure, causing discolouration andplant death within hours or over a few days.21 Thermalweed control has been suggested as a safer alternativeto herbicide use.22 However research and trials intothermal weed control have generally found it to be lesseffective than chemical weed control, more expensive,uses large amounts of energy, is non-selective andis not practical in natural areas.Thermal weed control generally kills the upper mostportion of the weed and is therefore most suitable forannuals or young perennials. Perennial weeds withdeeper roots will generally resprout as the thermaltreatment does not affect the deeper root systems.21, 23, 24As a result more repeat treatments are required whenusing thermal weed control. Thermal weed control hasbeen found to be more expensive as the cost of theapplication is expensive and it takes longer so the labourcosts are higher and more treatments are required.24Whilst thermal weed control is a non-chemical formof weed control, it also uses large amounts of energyto create the steam and therefore has environmentalimpacts in relation to greenhouse emissions. It canpose a safety risk to the operator through burns orscalds from the use of the hot steam.Thermal weed control is not a viable option for thetreatment of weeds in natural areas25 because: It is non-selective and will therefore also killnon-target species including adjacent native species. The very high temperatures kill beneficial soilmicrobes including fungi and bacteria and thesoil can become inoculated allowing badpathogens to replace good microbes. Once treated, an area is left with rotting organicmatter and moisture, which can promote seedgermination in the soil increasing the number ofweeds immediately following treatment. The equipment also tends to be large andbulky and is generally unsuitable for accessingnatural areas.Thermal weed control has generally been i

3.2 Chemical Weed Control 10 3.3 Thermal Weed Control 14 3.4 Biological Weed Control 15 4.0 Natural Areas Weed Management 16 4.1 Purpose 16 4.2 Limitations 16 4.3 Study Area 16 4.4 Weed Management Site Prioritisation 18 4.5 Weed Monitoring 20 4.6 Weed Prevention 22 4.7 Weed Control 24 4.8 Partnerships 28 5.0 Parks and Urban Landscaping

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