NATIVE HAWAIIANS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS IN HIGHER EDUCATION - APIA Scholars
NATIVE HAWAIIANSAND PACIFIC ISLANDERS INHIGHER EDUCATIONA RURAL PACIFIC LEARNING TOUR
‘Ōlelo No’eau‘Ike aku, ‘ike mai, kokua aku kokua mai; pela iho la ka nohona ‘ohanaRecognize and be recognized, help and be helped; such is family life.Hawaiian proverb as shared by Mary Kawena Pukui, 1983Prepared By: Jeannette Soon-Ludes, Julie Ajinkya, Robert T. Teranishi, Annie Le, Rose Ann E. Gutierrez, ‘Inoke Hafoka, and Demeturie Toso-Lafaele GogueContributors: This report was made possible by a collaborative effort between Asian and Pacific Islander American (APIA) Scholars and the Institute for Immigration, Globalization, and Education (IGE) at the University of California of Los Angeles. We are indebted to our funder, the Ascendium Education Group, fortheir generous support of this endeavor. The authors of this report are Jeannette Soon-Ludes and Julie Ajinkya in collaboration with Robert T. Teranishi, Annie Le,Rose Ann E. Gutierrez, ‘Inoke Hafoka, and Demeturie Toso-Lafaele Gogue. Florie Mendiola dedicated endless hours to ensure the success of this project andfor that we are immensely grateful. We thank the Honorable Robert Underwood, Erika Lacro, and Chelsea Rion for their service as members of the Rural PacificAdvisory Committee, whose guidance ensured this project remained faithful to the many voices in higher education across the U.S. affiliated Pacific. We aregrateful to the many practitioners, leaders, and students who generously gave of their experiences, insights and personal journeys to inform this project. Weextend the deepest of gratitude to Tavae Samuelu and Kalehua Kukahiko whose expertise and commitments provide both inspiration and thought partnership inthis and the many other projects that lift up Pacific Islander and Native Hawaiian students.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYAmid a global pandemic that has fundamentally changed how higher education traditionally operates acrossthe nation, it is critically important to understand how college campuses can continue to serve their students,with a special focus on the students who too often are overlooked and underserved.For students from communities of color, low-income householdsand other populations that have been historically excludedfrom postsecondary opportunities, COVID-19 has exacerbatedpreexisting barriers to college access and success. Rural communities in particular, with sparse populations and long distances between students and educational facilities, have longexperienced limited postsecondary opportunities due to limitedemerging technology and services, that students in non-ruralareas are now experiencing for the first time.Institutions of higher education in the U.S. affiliated Pacific–where rural communities look across oceans rather than rollinghillsides–serve Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (NHPI)communities at the confluence of these challenging factors.Now, as the coronavirus compels us to reimagine the relationship between proximity and student success, educators in thePacific are well positioned to offer insight on how to navigatethese unknown waters.Yet our current understanding of how institutions in this regionare able to serve marginalized student communities or evenhow NHPI students fare in postsecondary education is limited,due to national postsecondary data sources’ inability to capture reliable information about students in the region. In orderto learn more about these institutions and their capacity toserve NHPI students, APIA Scholars set out to conduct a RuralPacific Learning Tour, a set of conversations with institutionalstakeholders at nine of the eleven rural higher education institutions in the U.S. affiliated Pacific Islands, that askedopen-ended questions about student success and institutionalcapacities to improve student outcomes.This report lays out the findings from these conversations, in3combination with insights gleaned from focus groups of students who live in and/or attend college in the Pacific Islands,in order to shed light on how institutions, students and communities in the region have fared—both prior to the globalpandemic as well as now.Three major themes emerged from these conversations. First,although higher education institutions across the rural Pacificface challenges unique to their campus and community, institutions detected three common barriers to NHPI student success: college readiness, lack of financial resources, and workand family responsibilities. Second, despite these barriers,institutions are deliberately challenging the colonial legacyand resulting deficit framework that too often plagues students,institutions, and island communities; in some instances, deficitnarratives are confronted outright, while in other instancescolleges and universities seek to provide the sorts of holisticsupports that create student success stories that will continueto shift the narrative. Finally, there was a keen interest frommany campuses to better use data to gain insight into studenttrends, as well as leveraging this data to institutionalize systemic changes that would improve NHPI student success.Based on findings from this study, APIA Scholars outlines recommendations for further research to collectively expand thebody of knowledge on NHPI postsecondary access and success. Ultimately, in order to improve the capacity of rural institutions in the U.S. affiliated Pacific Islands to support vulnerablestudent populations themselves, APIA Scholars is poised toinitiate an NHPI Student Research Capacity-Building Initiativethat would create a community of practice for institutionalstakeholders to learn from one another in the region as theyall work towards improving NHPI student success.Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
INTRODUCTIONAmid a global pandemic that has fundamentally changed howhigher education traditionally operates across the nation, it iscritically important to understand how college campuses cancontinue to serve their students, with a special focus on thestudents who too often are overlooked and underserved. Forstudents from communities of color, low-income householdsand other populations that have been historically excludedfrom postsecondary opportunities, COVID-19 has exacerbatedpreexisting barriers to college access and success. At the sametime, with sparse populations and long distances betweenstudents and educational facilities, rural campuses have historically grappled with questions that are now being posed in everycollege campus across the United States. Institutions of highereducation in the U.S. affiliated Pacific–where rural communities look across oceans rather than rolling hillsides–serveNative Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (NHPI) communities at theconfluence of these factors. Now, as the coronavirus compelsus to reimagine the relationship between proximity andstudent success, educators in the Pacific are well positionedto offer insight on how to navigate these unknown waters.It is vitally important to understand the experiences of NHPIstudents in higher education access and success. Scholarshipthat focuses specifically on NHPI students is often critical ofthe relative invisibility of these students within the umbrellaterm Asian Pacific Islander (API).1 In recent years, scholarshave challenged this homogenous view by advocating for andusing disaggregated data.2 When national API data is disaggregated, significant disparities emerge in college participation and completion rates. For example, Teranishi et al. foundthat although the college participation rate for the total U.S.population is 54.9 percent, only 47.0 percent of the NHPIpopulation have attended college. This disparity is even moreconcerning when NHPI data is further disaggregated byethnic subgroup, with large proportions of adults neverenrolling in postsecondary education, including Samoans(57.9%), Tongans (56.8%), Native Hawaiians (53.0%), andGuamanians or Chamorros (49.3%).3Lower participation rates occur along the entire postsecondarypipeline, with declining NHPI enrollment in not-for-profit twoand four-year institutions and concerning rates of attrition forthose who do enroll. There is a particularly high rate of studentswho begin college and leave without a degree among Samoans(58.1%), Tongans (54.0%), Native Hawaiians (50.0%), andGuamanians or Chamorros (47.0%). As a result of low levels ofcollege participation and a high rate of students starting collegeand leaving without a degree, overall educational attainmentrates have been relatively low for NHPI students, with Native4Hawaiians (20.5%), Guamanians or Chamorros (18.6%),Samoans (13.4%), and Tongans (12.3%) receiving four-yeardegrees at rates well below the national average (29.1%).4While Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander students attendcollege both in the Pacific and on the U.S. continent, thereare a handful of colleges that make up a critical mass of NHPIenrollment. The top five institutions in terms of total NHPIenrollment are located in the U.S. affiliated Pacific: College ofMicronesia-FSM (Public Two-Year), University of Guam (PublicFour-Year), Guam Community College (Public Two-Year),American Sāmoa Community College (Public Four-Year), andthe College of the Marshall Islands (Public Two-Year). Thesefive postsecondary institutions in the Pacific Islands enrollone-in-five NHPI students nationally.5 As federally designatedAsian American and Native American Pacific Islander ServingInstitutions (AANAPISIs), these institutions are part of a cohortof schools that serve and award a large proportion of associate’s and bachelor’s degrees to NHPI students. AANAPISIsenroll 14.1% of all undergraduates nationally but 38.1% ofNHPI students and conferred 42.6 and 27.1 percent of associate and bachelor’s degrees, respectively, to NHPI students in2016.6 Additionally, the colleges and universities that comprisethe University of Hawai’i system are eligible for and haveparticipated extensively in the federal Alaska Native and NativeHawaiian Serving Institutions (ANNHSIs) program, with all tencampuses represented among the 44 grant awards between2008 and 2014.7 These trends are significant for understandingNHPIs in higher education broadly, though national datasources do not include figures from the U.S. territories andfreely associated states that comprise much of the U.S.affiliated Pacific.8 For this reason, it is important to understandthe history and context of higher education in the region.There are more than 20 ethnic groups recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau in the NHPIcommunity.9 Polynesians include individualswho identify as Native Hawaiian, Samoan,Tahitian, Tongan, and Tokelauan. Micronesiansinclude individuals who identify as Guamanianor Chamorro, Mariana Islander, Saipanese,Palauan, Carolinian, Kosraean, Pohnpeian,Chuukese, Yapese, Marshallese, and I-Kiribati.Melanesians include individuals who identify asFijian, Papua New Guinean, Solomon Islander,and Ni-Vanuatu.Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
Higher Education in the U.S. Affiliated PacificThe U.S. affiliated Pacific Islands fall into threebroad geopolitical classifications: U.S. territories,freely associated states, and the state of Hawai’i.10The territories are comprised on American Sāmoa,the Commonwealth of the Northern MarianaIslands (CNMI), and Guam. The freely associatedstates are the Federated States of Micronesia(FSM), Republic of the Marshall Islands, andRepublic of Palau.Across the U.S. affiliated Pacific there are sixteen publictwo- and four- year colleges and universities. In Hawai’i, thereare ten institutions, including the University of Hawai’i atMānoa, University of Hawai’i at Hilo, University of Hawai’iWest O’ahu, and the University of Hawai’i Community College(UHCC) system comprised of Hawai’i Community College,Honolulu Community College, Kapi’olani Community College,Kaua’i Community College, Leeward Community College, theUniversity of Hawai’i Maui College, and Windward Community College. These colleges and universities have high racialand ethnic diversity with NHPI students comprising a sizableminority of the overall student population.Within the UHCC system, NHPIs were 30% of the studentpopulation in Fall 2019. At UH Manoa, UH Hilo, and UH WestO’ahu, these figures were 16.8%, 37.6%, and 31% respectively.11 In the U.S. territories and freely associated states, NHPIscomprise larger proportions of the student population. In 2019,NHPI enrollment was 46% at the University of Guam and 50%at Guam Community College. In this same period, PI enroll-Table 1: NHPI Enrollment at Pacific AANAPISIsInstitutionStudent PopulationNHPI Students by PercentUniversity of Hawai’i Community Colleges*28,06630%Hawai’i Community College2,61546%Honolulu Community College3,51028%Kapi’olani Community College6,48819%Kaua’i Community College1,37331%Leeward Community College6,56830%University of Hawai’i, Maui College2,99233%Windward Community College2,52044%University of Hawai’i, Mānoa*17,49017%University of Hawai’i, Hilo*3,37238%University of Hawai’i, West O’ahu*3,04931%University of Guam**3,65346%Guam Community College***2,73250%Northern Marianas College****1,25343%American Sāmoa Community College***1,37089%College of Micronesia-FSM***2,683100%College of Marshall Islands***1,399100%Palau Community College***62198%*Source: University of Hawai’i Institutional Research & Analysis Office, Enrollment Table 5, Student Selected Characteristics, Fall 2019, All Ethnicities, All Majors. Accessed November 16, 2020**Source: University of Guam 2019-2020 Fact Book. Accessed November 17, 2020***Source: Pacific Postsecondary Education Council. Report to Accrediting Commission of Community & Junior Colleges, July–December 2019. Accessed November 16, 2020****Source: Institute of Education Sciences: National Center for Education Statistics. Access November 19, 20205Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
Association, students from Palau also gain access to theseforms of federal assistance. In contrast, citizens of FSM andthe Marshall Islands are only eligible for federal Pell Grants asstipulated in those nations’ compacts with the United States.15This geopolitical context in regard to the different relationships each Pacific island has with the U.S. shape the pathwaysand opportunities of NHPI students in higher education andrequire consideration.ment rates were 43% at Northern Marianas College and 89%at American Sāmoa Community College. In the freely associated states, NHPIs comprised the majority of students: Collegeof Micronesia-FSM (100%), College of the Marshall Islands(100%), and Palau Community College (98%).12Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander experiences in highereducation are indelibly marked by U.S. involvement in thePacific region, both as relates to specific geopolitical statusesvis-a-vis the United States and an affective sense of belongingwithin college communities. The varying classifications betweenHawai’i, U.S. territories, and freely associated states are alegacy of U.S. militarization across the Pacific and have lastingimpacts on migration patterns and a host of legal statuses thatvary by island and archipelago. For example, statehood affordsHawai’i full citizenship benefits, as is the case for Guam andCNMI. This is in contrast to American Sāmoa in which, thoughalso a U.S. territory, residents are considered to be U.S.nationals. Through the Compacts of Free Association, citizensof Palau, FSM, and the Marshall Islands are able to travel andlive in the U.S. for educational and employment purposeswithout visas.13In the context of higher education, these differences matter. Astudent’s legal status determines their ability to access financialaid, health care, and employment.14 For example, due toHawai’i’s status as a state, students born in the islands areeligible for all assistance available to U.S. citizens, includingfederal Pell Grants, Supplemental Educational OpportunityGrants, and Work Study. Through the Compacts of Free6The legacy of U.S. involvement in the Pacific region alsoimpacts NHPI students’ sense of belonging in institutions ofhigher education. In Hawai’i, Native Hawaiian students bearthe burden of over 100 years of U.S. colonialism and animposed foreign educational system, with starkly lower 4- and6-year graduation rates at 9 and 40 percent, respectively,compared with 19 and 44 percent for their peers.16 FederalANNH programs address these gaps and Malone et al. foundthat beneficiaries of federal ANNH programs within theUniversity of Hawai’i system cited a higher sense of belonging,identify formation, educational agency, and kuleana (sense ofresponsibility) over their non-beneficiary peers.17 For PacificIslander families and students, the ability to migrate from theU.S. territories and COFA states to Hawai’i and the continentalU.S. does indeed open educational opportunities. However,Uehara, Chugen, and Staley Raatior found that Pacific Islanderstudents at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo experienced asense of conflict between higher education and their culturalbeliefs and practices.18 Indeed, NHPI students’ persistence todegree completion is influenced by a sense of belonging oncampus and the challenges associated with trying to find abalance in their identity at home and educational settings,where values are often conflicting with one another.19Rurality and Rural Higher EducationThe U.S. affiliated Pacific Islands are unconventionally rural tothe extent that dominant perceptions of rurality20 do not ofteninclude the oceans, atolls, and islands for which the Pacific iscommonly known. The U.S. Census Bureau “defines rural aswhat is not urban–that is, after defining individual urbanareas, rural is what is left.”21 This report challenges dominantperceptions with a multifaceted conceptualization of rurality.22In this approach U.S. Census definitions are an important starting point because urban areas are designated as such througha constellation of factors that include population threshold,density per square mile, land use, and distance. Specifically,urbanized areas meet a population threshold of at least 50,000and population density of at least 1,000 people per squaremile. Urban clusters meet this population density criteria buthave a lower total population of between 2,500 and 50,000people.23 However, data for the entire U.S. affiliated Pacific isNative Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
not uniformly produced by the U.S. Census Bureau. Specifically, due to differing geopolitical statuses vis-à-vis the U.S.,U.S. Census data is available for states and territories but notthe freely associated states. Thus, data for the freely associatedstates were derived not from census figures but from theCentral Intelligence Agency World Factbook.Most notably, many of the counties, county equivalents, andfreely associated states fall below population thresholds forurban designation and few meet both the population threshold and density requirements for urban areas. Honolulucounty is the notable exception and is a helpful example forunderstanding the ways rurality is understood throughout theU.S. affiliated Pacific. Rather than designating an island asrural or urban, islands are often understood in relation topopulation centers within the archipelago. Honolulu county,located on the island of O’ahu, is the major population centerof Hawai’i. It is the only county with large tracts of landTable 2: Population and Population Density for Hawai’i, U.S. Territories, and COFA StatesAreaPopulationLand Area in Square MilesPopulation DensityHawai’i1,360,3016,422.63211.80Hawai’i County185,0794,028.4245.90Honolulu County953,207600.741,586.70Kaua’i County67,091619.96108.20Maui County154,9241,173.51132.00American Sāmoa55,51976.46726.16Eastern District23,03025.69896.41Manu’a District1,14325.6951.29Rose Island00.030.00Swains Island170.9418.10Western Guam Municipality159,358209.80759.56Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of53,883182.33295.53Northern Mariana Islands Municipality061.790.00Rota Municipality2,52732.8676.91Saipan Municipality48,22045.891,050.78Tinian Municipality3,13641.7975.04Marshall Islands71,91769.881,029.15Micronesia, Federated States of102,436271.04377.94Palau, Republic of21,685177.22122.36State of Hawai’i *U.S. Territories **Compacts of Free Association States ****Source: State of Hawai’i Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2019 State of Hawai’i Databook, Table 01.10**Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Recent Population Trends for the U.S. Island Areas: 2000 to 2010***Source: Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook, accessed October 12, 20207Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
designated as urban areas and host to six of the ten publichigher education institutions in the islands. Students living onother islands–often described as “outer islands”–have farfewer, if any, options on their home island. This pattern oflimited higher educational options is replicated throughout theU.S. affiliated Pacific where population distribution tends tofollow a similar pattern of higher density tracts with lowerdensity areas on the same or outlying islands and atolls.Another facet to understanding rurality in the U.S. affiliatedPacific is through an exploration of NHPI educational trajectories that resonate with their continental peers. Existing researchdetails the ways that proximity of rural communities to urbancenters is implicated in access to emerging technology andservices and, ultimately, results in less access and opportunitiesfor rural students.24 This begins in K-12 systems where educationbudgets, enrollment sizes, and limited access to academicallyrigorous courses adversely impact rural students.25 NHPIs inthe U.S. affiliated Pacific also exhibit similar enrollment trendsas their peers in other rural regions. Students from rural areasexperience lower college enrollment,26 have similar familybackgrounds, including being the first in their family to attendcollege and coming from a low-income background,27 and aremore likely to attend nonselective colleges.28 If they transfer,students from rural communities will transfer to smaller ruralcolleges.29 Research also highlighted rural students’ difficultyin adjusting to the increased size of large public four-yearinstitutions.30 Furthermore, students from rural communitiesexperience challenges in adapting to more racially andculturally diverse settings.31 Regarding degree attainment, ruralstudents have lower percentages of degree completion compared to urban peers.32and their populations–are understood in relationship to theocean that connects island communities with each other.Rurality appears out of sync with Pacific experiences. However, even in light of this distinction, the U.S. Census delineationof urban and rural areas remains an important starting pointbecause most islands do not meet both the population threshold and density factors that are important for defining anurban area. When population factors are read alongside theexperiences of NHPI students in local educational systems,the concept of rurality in higher education names the way thatlow population thresholds and densities interface with issuesof equitable access and success. Examining the U.S. affiliatedPacific will thus expand and deepen current understandingsof rurality in higher education.PURPOSE OF REPORTThe purpose of this report is to share findings from the APIAScholars digital Rural Pacific Learning Tour and establish anagenda for an NHPI Student Research Capacity-BuildingInitiative. In presenting these findings, we build on priorresearch by providing a portrait of the colleges and universitiesthat serve rural NHPI students pursuing higher education acrossthe U.S. affiliated Pacific. With the intent to host open-endedconversations, we designed questions to shed light on NHPIstudent experiences, as well as how institutions collect anduse data to improve outcomes for NHPI students:A third facet to understanding rurality in the U.S. affiliatedPacific is that rural upbringings also provide benefits that maybe influential for students pursuing higher education. That is,although students from rural communities face a host ofchallenges, they find benefits in having grown up in smallercommunities that are often tight-knit.33 Rural students haveshared their immense sense of gratitude towards familymembers, teachers, coaches, counselors, and peers that haveshaped their educational pathways.34 In addition to individuals,rural students emphasized the significant role of local businesses, colleges, and civic and faith-based organizations insupporting rural students in their pursuit of higher education.35Rurality in the Pacific is both similar and different from theU.S. continent. A key difference is that definitions of urbanand rural are continent-based, focusing on population inrelationship to land. In the Pacific, archipelagos and atolls–81.How do institutions define student success? Whatbarriers do NHPI students encounter in pursuit of educational success?Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
2. How are institutions currently addressing identified barriersto NHPI student success? What are the ongoing institutional challenges to achieving NHPI student success?3. How do institutions currently gather, analyze, and strategically use data? What would improving that process looklike at an institutional level?These questions framed the broad parameters of the RuralPacific Learning Tour in which our stated interest was in listeningto, conversing with, and learning firsthand from institutionsthat serve NHPI students in the U.S. affiliated Pacific.meaningfully participate. Four of the five urban institutionswere also engaged as a frame of reference, though the findingsin this report focus on rural institutions only. All institutionalresponses have been anonymized. Data for this project reliedprimarily on focus group interviews conducted digitally withstakeholders of rural institutions of higher education in theU.S. affiliated Pacific, with individual interviews or writtenresponses provided as additional options for respondentsunable to attend focus group sessions. All institutional responses have been anonymized.DATA SOURCE AND METHODOLOGYOf the sixteen public two- and four- year higher educationinstitutions in the U.S. affiliated Pacific, eleven are situated inrural areas that align with our multifaceted framework forunderstanding rurality. In Hawai’i, these institutions are theUniversity of Hawai’i at Hilo, the University of Hawai’i MauiCollege, Hawai’i Community College, and Kaua’i CommunityCollege. In the U.S. territories, these institutions are theUniversity of Guam, Guam Community College, the NorthernMarianas College, and American Sāmoa Community College.In the freely associated states, these institutions are theCollege of Micronesia-FSM, College of the Marshall Islands,and Palau Community College.Beginning in May 2020, outreach for the APIA Scholars RuralPacific Learning Tour was conducted to faculty, staff, andadministrative leaders of these institutions with particularemphasis on rural colleges and universities. After initialcampus connections were established, a snowball method wasemployed to increase the focus group size, with personsinvolved in student affairs, institutional research, senior-levelinstitutional leadership, directors of AANAPISI (Asian American- Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institution) andANNHSI (Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian-Serving Institution) programs, and faculty or staff involved in planning distancelearning programs. A snowball method was also employed toincrease the number of college campuses participating in thestudy. Each session was framed as an open discussion withour key research questions provided as a prompt for participants to begin sharing insights on student experiences andinstitutional capacities at their campus. Learning Tour sessionswere conducted from June to September 2020.Nine of the eleven rural higher education institutions in theU.S. affiliated Pacific Islands are represented in this study andtwo were unable to coordinate a time among stakeholders to9We also include in this report findings from focus groups withstudents who live and/or attended college in the Pacific Islands.In total, we conducted seven focus groups with over 20 studentswho attended six postsecondary institutions in the PacificIslands. These students were recruited through their affiliationwith APIA Scholars. In an effort to center Native Hawaiian andPacific Islander voices and their unique experiences from theislands, we asked about students about their college experience and how COVID-19 impacted their educational trajectory.The interviews provided important context and insight intofindings from focus groups comprised of institutional stakeholders, specifically to corroborate the key challenges and opportunities along the lines of student access in higher education.Like institutional respondents, student responses have beenanonymized though at times institutional affiliations are noted.Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in Higher Education: A Rural Pacific Learning Tour
The professors have a lot of business connections outside. If the student is really interested in, you know,getting into the workforce or getting a job in the business or financial industry after school, if they justreach out to the professors, then they definitely help them get a job. It’s kind of how I think I started workingright after graduation. I already had a few job offers to start working right after graduation, so it definitelyhelps--reaching out to the professors and things like that.—Recent graduate, Universit
serve NHPI students, APIA Scholars set out to conduct a Rural Pacific Learning Tour, a set of conversations with institutional stakeholders at nine of the eleven rural higher education insti-tutions in the U.S. affiliated Pacific Islands, that asked open-ended questions about student success and institutional capacities to improve student outcomes.
Native Hawaiians experience similar treatment in the Hawai‘i criminal justice system, no comprehensive study has been conducted to determine or deny that such treatment exists. The genesis for this study came from a desire to know, once and for all, whether Hawaiians are or are not discriminated against in Hawai‘i’s criminal justice system.
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group that is a small percentage of the U.S. population. These minority groups are Blacks, Hispanics, American Indians or Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, Asians, and Persons Reporting More Than One Race. Also, per the State of California, traditionally underrepresented groups include: Black/African American, American
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iii aapi nexus Volume 9, Numbers 1 & 2 Fall 2011 Forging the Future: The Role of New Research, Data, & Policies for Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders Contents message from the editors Closing the Rese
The REST API cannot accept more than 10 MB of data. Audience and Purpose of This Guide The primary audience for this manual is systems integrators who intend to enable configuration and management of the system features through integrated systems. This manual is not intended for end users. Related Poly and Partner Resources See the following sites for information related to this release. The .
