The Taxonomy Of Chinese Traditional Revival Interior Design
International Association of Societies ofDesign Research Conference 2019DESIGN REVOLUTIONSManchester School of ArtManchester Metropolitan University02-05 September 2019The Taxonomy of Chinese Traditional Revival InteriorDesignJun Ding*a, b; Weimin GuoaaSchool of Design at Jiangnan University, Wuxi, ChinaSuzhou Art and Design Technology Institute, Suzhou, China* 691319713@qq.combThe traditional revival phenomenon has appeared in Chinese interior design throughout itshistory. Although academics have discussed it widely, the main research focus is usually ondescribing style changes. However, such descriptions cannot reveal the nontemporalrelationship between the different styles or the design logic beneath them. With thisbackground, this study aims to explore how and why the traditional revival phenomenoncontinuously appears in Chinese interior design history through categorising and subdividingthe style based on a literature review, sample collection, classification, and site visit. Theresearch found that reiteration, as a design logic, traverses different times and moves fromforeign duplication to self-duplication, although various factors have played roles at differenttimes, such as political definition in the 1950s, cultural influence in the 1980s and commercialconsiderations since the 1990s. Duplication was used as a method to search for nationalidentity while responding to overseas influences.Keywords: interior design, taxonomy, traditional revival, reiteration1IntroductionThe exploration of national traditions in interior design has frequently occurred in modernChinese design history because the development of contemporary Chinese culture alwaysseems to swing between tradition and modernity as well as between national identity andinternational influences (Yang, 2006). According to Paul Ricoeur (as cited in Frampton,1983), there is a paradox between universal civilisation and world cultures; thus, thechallenge for third world countries is to modernise under the influence of developedcountries while preserving their traditions. This paradox keeps affecting the modern Chineseinterior design landscape, which makes the traditional revival, together with the recapturingof the regional culture, an eternal topic. Even though relevant design practices emerged inChina as early as the 1930s, this paper focuses on discussing Chinese traditional revivalinterior design since the1950s while keeping in mind that interior decoration, which graduallydeveloped into interior design, formally separated itself from architecture design in China inthe 1950s.Although traditional revival interior design is one of the most widely discussed topics inChina, the leading academics, as shown in Table 1, is prone to focus on style analysis,which leads to only a description of the phenomenon. The disadvantage of style analysis isCopyright 2019. Copyright of this paper is the property of the author(s). Permission is granted to reproducecopies of the works for purposes relevant to the IASDR conference, provided that the author(s), source andcopyright notice are included on each copy. For other uses, please contact the author(s).
its focus on the artist's personality and their design works' artistic features, which leads to afocus on grand designs because they are seen as having more artistic value (Fallan, 2010).Thus, interiors, as temporary arrangements for people's daily life trajectories, are ignored bythe taxonomy of styles which dominate the history of art and architecture (Hollis, 2010).However, generally speaking, style analysis can be used as a starting point to explore thedesign logic beneath each style, as it showcases a coherent design appearance forunderstanding the perplexing design phenomenon. In order to overcome thesedisadvantages of style analysis, this paper is not going to discuss aesthetic value, the storiesof famous designers or the relationship between form and function. Instead, the research isgoing to explore the design approach, the underlying design logic and the relationshipbetween different subdivisions of the style. Theoretically, the subdivisions of the traditionalrevival style exist due to the reiteration phenomenon. As Kubler (1962) pointed out, thedesign of continuous duplication exists, as it traverses time and space forming a continuity.This paper aims to explore the reiteration variations of Chinese traditional revival style; itstarts from classifying the style's subdivisions and their design approaches and thenanalyses the underlying similarities and the design logic behind them.Table 1 Literature review on Chinese traditional revival interior design.AuthorsResearchMethodsResearch e development ofChinese interior design inthe 20th centuryFrom 1977 to 1999, the combination oftraditional culture and modern form was theprimary concern of Chinese interiordesigners.YangStyleanalysisThe development ofmodern Chinese interiordesign styledesigners take different approaches atdifferent times, such as the eclecticism inthe 1930s; the inheritance and adoption ofnational forms in the 1950s; new nationalpatterns and regional exploration in the1980s.StyleanalysisChinese interior designhistoryThis development was mainly reflected instyle changes.StyleanalysisInterior design artdevelopment in the 30years following theopening up policyThis development reflected the gradualdominance of aesthetic values.（2006）Huo(2017)Dong（2010）2Research designThe research begins with a literature review of books and dissertations concerning Chineseinterior design history to search for clues about the traditional revival style. These booksinclude 'Chinese Interior Design History' (Huo & Huo, 2003), 'The Style of Interior Designand its Development' (Zhang, 1999), 'Chinese Modern Interior Design Style Evolution' (Yang,2006). The dissertations are from Zhang Qingping, Dongchi and Zhu Zhongcui. Almost all ofthem are style-focused research, which acted as a starting point to get a general view of therevival style.2
The review then continues by exploring design magazines to collect design samples mainlyfrom 'The Journal of Architecture', 'Decoration', 'Interior Design and Construction' and'Interior Design'. These magazines, except the last one, have a continuous publishing historyon interior design and have influenced the industry to a large extent due to their high statusin China. 'The Journal of Architecture', founded in 1954, was the first professionalarchitectural magazine published in China; it has recorded China's architecture and interiordesign development. 'Decoration', founded in 1958 by Central Academy of Arts and Craftswhich set up China's first interior decoration department, was the only academic publicationof arts and crafts in China at that time. 'Interior Design and construction', founded in 1986and later chosen as the journal for the Chinese Interior Decoration Association, has anenduring and wide-spread influence in the Chinese interior design industry (Zeng, 2002).Among all the periodicals, the journal most specialises in reporting and promoting China'sinterior design development. It assisted the setup of traditional revival conferences in the1980s and 1990s and published articles about the conferences for coverage and discussion.'Interior Design', founded in 1986, was one of the earliest magazines focusing on interiordesign. It documented the Chinese interior design industry until 2013, when it was renamedthe 'Journal of Western Living Environment' and shifted its focus to architecture. Additionally,some major design competitions are examined for references, such as the interior designcompetitions sponsored by the New Zealand Wool Bureau (1995–2001), the ChineseInterior Design Competition, the National Art Exhibition, and the Asia-Pacific Interior DesignAwards.Next, after the sample collection, the research creates a taxonomy of traditional revivalinterior design. The taxonomy starts by sorting out three main branches of traditions derivedfrom international, national and regional factors, which are based on the previously collectedsamples. It then subdivides the variations of the traditions according to the similarities anddifferences between the observed variables. The sorting of categories seeks to minimiseintragroup differences while maximising intergroup differences. As shown in Figure 1, thefeatures that distinguish one tradition from another and the hierarchy behind theclassification are the core issues.Moreover, to compare documentation with real works, researchers select typical samplesfrom each division to take site surveys when categorisations and their sub-divisions begin totake shape, as interior spaces bring spatial experiences which are far more complex thantwo-dimensional images could reflect.3Results and Analysis3.1 Classification of traditional revival interior design3.1.1 Style classificationPeople generally use style as a starting point to understand form features. Walker (1989)argued that style, which, results from a visual representation of artistic creation, emphasisesand expresses form. Therefore, some scholars refer to style as visual ideology. This paper isnot limited to defining a style; it mainly analyses the style's particular characteristics basedon the classification.The traditional revival, as one of the significant styles in modern Chinese interior designhistory, is a relatively broad field. It appears in different forms, namely as, international,3
national, and regional traditions. Generally, the international tradition refers to overseasinfluences. The national one displays the self-reflection attitude facing the influx of overseasimpacts. The regional one, which is relatively a flexible and inclusive concept, shows a morein-depth development of the self-reflection process.Figure 1 Classification of the traditional revival style.(Hong Kong & Taiwan influence was classified within the international category because it worked as introductoryvariants of the Western classical style)As shown in Figure 1, each category has a subdivision, which reveals a diversified state.Each group and subdivision share similar design motivations and appearances, whereasdifferences exist among the internal categories and divisions. Through the analysis of thesimilarities, differences and the relationship between the categories and divisions, thefeatures of the traditional revival style can be better understood.The international tradition represents the acceptance of relatively more advanced overseascivilisations. Among these civilisations, the Soviet Union was the first foreign influence insocialist China. In the 1950s, the Stalinist style or socialist classicism, which utilisedeclecticism to reflect the Soviet Union's greatness, influenced socialist countries' architecturebeyond the borders of Eastern Europe all the way to the Far East. At that time, Chinaaccepted Soviet Union's proposal and constructed four Soviet exhibition centres(Figures 3–5); the Soviet Union's architects helped to design the centres to showcase USSR'sachievements in agriculture, industry, science and education (Li, 2017). These buildings'interior and exterior decorations, based on socialist realism, used sculptures of workers,peasants, scientists and students, as well as motifs of wheat, sunflower, fruit and cotton to4
reflect socialist life (Zheng, 2018). In the 1980s, with the reform and opening-up policy, HongKong and Taiwan's influence — including modernism, postmodernism, classicism andneoclassicism — entered China, which helped form a complicated mixture of influences inChina. During the initial stage, Hong Kong and Taiwan acted as a tunnel to translateEuropean classical decoration languages into a style that became popular in the mainland.Through Hong Kong and Taiwan's introduction and interpretation, interior designers on themainland began to realise the concept of interior decoration, which is mainly focused onmoulding, veneer and Western patterns. Then, the designers began to seek the prototype ofthe Hong Kong and Taiwan style — the European classical style. With increased opennessand more Chinese people going abroad, the European classical style, which in Chinagenerally refers to a mixture of different European traditional styles for decoration, becomemore popular. In the late 1990s, with an emerging affluent society, aesthetic simplicity, whichwas inherited from modernism, became a new trend. However, simplicity created a tediousand an emotionless environment, which made some people feel uncomfortable. At the sametime, postmodernism, which utilises a collage of historical elements to showcase context,was wide-spread. Since 2000, Art Deco, which reflects historical details and a sense of craft,has become popular in China, as balances the need to show off not only wealth or socialstatus but also the restraint of modern fashion.National tradition shows the awakening of discourse on Chinese identity, which successivelyexperienced political, cultural, and commercial context as responses to overseas influences.In the 1950s, Chinese neoclassicism emerged and expanded as a response to the SovietUnion style, especially after the political split between the two socialist superpowers in 1959.This style, which diverged from the Soviet one, retains socialist design ideas but replacesthe Soviet decorative elements with traditional Chinese motifs. Since the reform andopening-up policy, after the imitation and digestion of the Hong Kong, Taiwan and Europeanclassical influences, interior designers in Chinese mainland began to return to their ownclassicism, no matter its imperial or vernacular traditions. In response to Westernpostmodernism, China sought to develop its own postmodernism by drawing inspirationsfrom Chinese history by replacing the decorative elements with national symbols. Also, it isrelatively more contradictory and complex than the 1950s neo-classicism which respectsharmonious proportions and solemn compositions. Since 2000, parametric design, whichrepresents the new development of technology and aesthetics, has emerged in China,notably after Zaha demonstrated its charm through her completed projects. Schumacher(2008) further proposed parametricism to resist modernism, as if the suffix with 'ism'strengthened his manifestation. However, the demonstration and manifestation haveprompted Chinese designers to explore their parametric design either as a low-techparametric strategy (Yuan, 2012) or as a context strategy (Xu, & Li, 2016), (Gao, 2016). Thelow-tech approach artificially constructs the parametric form while compromising on theparametric design's technological performance. The method moves to a tendency ofmannerism, as its form oriented strategy leads to superficiality. Context strategy, on theother hand, tries to avoid formalism but fails to achieve conformity between tectonic andform.The regional tradition reflects the rise of nativism. Regionalism is a relatively flexible concept.If compared with the West, China's exploration of national identity can be regarded asregionalism. In terms of approach, the emphasis on the local environment and the adoptionof local materials can be regarded as regionalism as well. Thus, nationalism and regionalism5
intersect with each other. In the 1990s, nationalism and regionalism were often discussedtogether. Lai (1991) regarded the historical context and folk customs as the inspiration forthe creation of architectural design and the interior environment with national or regionalcharacteristics. Shi (1996) believed that nationalism is the sum of regionalism. However,regionalism does not present a coherent image, as it changes due to different definingfactors at different times. In the 1950s, China's participation in globalisation was relativelylow and had a low level of industrialisation; the country had a less developed interior designprofession. As a result of these factors, the regional interior design mainly stayed at thevernacular level inspired from traditional residential houses. As for the limited number ofpublic buildings, the regional design used local motifs for architectural and interior decoration,such as the Xiamen University building complex and the Genghis Khan Mausoleum. In the1980s and 1990s, regionalism began to serve commercial purposes, with emphasis oncreating local landscapes. For example, the White Swan Hotel, built in 1983, created aLingnan garden landscape, which reflected typical local characteristics (She, 1983). WuyiMountain Resort, also built in 1983, used local materials and crafts to reflect thecharacteristics of the northern Fujian province. Presently, critical regionalism in architecture,which has gradually gained influence in the field of interior design, shows new possibilitiesfor interiors, as it tries to achieve a balance between universal rationality and nationalemotions. However, China is an exogenously developing country, and it started itsmodernisation and civilisation process relatively late (Shao, 2014). Thus, its traditionalculture inevitably conflicts with modern civilisation, which has been dominated by Westerndeveloped countries. Critical regionalism transcends the vernacular architecture thatemerges from the synthesis of climate, culture, myth and craft (Frampton, 1985). Comparedwith the design explorations in the 1950s, 1980s and 1990s, critical regionalism isundoubtedly a progression of ideas. As a matter of fact, the attention towards criticalregionalism appeared quite early in the Chinese interior design field, although the designpractices cannot match the theory of advancement. As early as in 2005, 'Interior Design andDecoration' magazine put forward a discussion on this topic.To sum up, although the traditional revival style takes different forms, they have all acted asa response to overseas influences. During the responding process, revival reflects anexploration of Chinese national identity by adopting design ideologies and approacheslearned from overseas and transforming them into the Chinese way of design based oninspirations from Chinese culture and tradition.3.1.2 Design methods classificationThe case studies found that the traditional revival interior design is reflected in fourcategories in terms of design approach: surface decoration, space scenery, artisticconception and space transformation. Among them, the surface decoration is the mostcommon one, which appears repeatedly. Space scenery, mainly came about in the 1980s,first appeared in hotels authorised to accommodate international guests. Artistic conceptionappeared around the 2000s with cultural spaces as its main stage. Space transformationbecame prevalent as the profession absorbed designers with an architecture background.These four categories are shown in table 2.Table 2 the classification of the traditional revival interior design according to the design methods.CategoryDesignfocusDesign elements6Typical sample
SurfacedecorationSurfaceSpacescenerySharedspaceThe creationof artisticconceptionSpacetransformationArtistic motifSpaceGypsum flower, woodlattice, moulding, reliefwall, etc.Garden, landscapestructure, miniaturemountain, waterfall, etc.The transformation ofcultural relics and abstractmotifsChinese traditional spacearrangementsThe Cultural Palace ofNationalities, China GrandHotelBaiyun Hotel, White SwanHotelChangzhou Grand HotelChinese Embassy inGermanyEach of these four design methods has its own characteristics, but they do not entirelycorrespond to the style categories and their subdivisions. For example, as shown in table 2,Soviet-style and Chinese neoclassicism both employ surface decoration; postmodernismuses either surface decoration or spatial scenery; Hong Kong and Taiwan influences andEuropean classical ones adopt surface decoration or sometimes spatial transformation.Figure 2 Schematic diagram of the relationship between style and design method.The practice of surface decoration has continued from the 1950s to the present day. Itfollows the Soviet-style of decoration, with the building's interior and exterior surfaces as themain design focus, such as the entrance facade, ceiling, columns and background wall. Itsdesign method utilises pattern configuration for decoration. The patterns are generally7
arranged according to the central and suitable corner patterns, whereas they are arrayed intwo consecutive and four consecutive directions. Chinese neoclassicism continued todecorate in this way, but it replaced the decorative symbols with national ones; the People'sGreat Hall's decoration design is a typical example (Figure 7).Figure 3. Images side by side showing Facade decoration of Beijing Exhibition Hall (left) and its motif details(right) (1954).Source: Beijing architectural design and research institute co. LTD, 20th century heritage committee of ChineseSociety of Cultural Relics (2018). China's 20th century architectural heritage canon: Beijing volume. Tianjin:Tianjin University Press.Figure 4. Images side by side showing Facade decoration of Shanghai Exhibition Hall (left) and its motif details(right) (1955)Source: Photo taken by authorFigure 5. Images side by side showing Interior decoration of Shanghai Exhibition Hall (left) and its ceiling motifdetails (right) (1955).Source:Photo taken by author8
Figure 6. Facade design of The Cultural Palace of Nationalities (1958).Source: Wang, H. (2015). Chinese Contemporary Design Collection Series. Beijing: Commercial Press.Figure 7. Images side by side showing interior decoration of Shanxi Province Meeting Room of People’s GrandHall (left) and its ceiling motif details (right) 2001).Source: Wang, H. (2015). Chinese Contemporary Design Collection Series. Beijing: Commercial Press.Spatial scenery, as a popular design method, appeared in the 1980s. it responds to thecontextual needs of the interior environment. However, it varies in different ways.Postmodernism, for example, which reflects mixture and ambiguity, differs from regional andvernacular styles, which maintain authenticity. Zhuhai Jinyi Hotel showcases postmodernismcharacteristics by using brass palm trees together with stones and gravels for a collage ofseaside scenery. Postmodernism focuses on patterns, cultural meanings and historicalimagination, whereas regionalism advocates for the expression of local culture byshowcasing local landscapes, materials and crafts. As for regional exploration, it tends to beconsistent with the modern environment. Vernacular, on the other hand, does not seriouslyconsider the surroundings, as it makes the context itself. For example, the atrium ofGuangzhou White Swan Hotel creates a waterfall landscape, which can be traced back tothe southern Guangdong traditional gardens but in a relatively modern way, as it iscompatible with the quite modern architectural background. As for the Wuyi MountainResort, the architecture is constructed in a countryside image. The interior utilised localmaterials to make the scenery, which strengthened the vernacular context.Figure 8. Images side by side showing Guangzhou White Swan Hotel (1983).Source: Wang, H. (2015). Chinese Contemporary Design Collection Series. Beijing: Commercial Press.9
Artistic concept creation began to appear mainly in the late 20th and 21st early century. Ituses the techniques of traditional Chinese painting and enthusiastically expresses a spacetheme. For example, in the lobby bar design of Changzhou Grand Hotel, the designer placeddry tree branches in the light panel after treatment, which formed an effect of light andshadow that echoed through light irradiation. This kind of design emphasises the designer'sunderstanding of an art theme, as he or she hopes to bring artistic feeling to visitors.Figure 9. Changzhou Grand Hotel（2001).Source: provided by Wang Qiong.The method of spatial transformation emerged in the 1980s and became popular in the 21stcentury. It either refers to the application of modern spatial orders or traditional Chinesemethods of arranging spaces. Modernism in architecture put importance to flowing spaceand to minimalising decoration, whereas, classicism in Western architecture emphasisesfacade and vertical decoration. Traditional Chinese buildings attach importance to the spacearrangements in the horizontal direction, which makes it share similarities with modernism inarchitecture. To this end, the interior space of traditional Chinese buildings is relativelyrestrained in decoration, and they try to create rich experiences through spacecommunication. For example, traditional Chinese buildings utilise the methods of oppositescenery, side views and borrowed scenery to enrich the space experiences.Figure 10. Chinese embassy in Germany (1984).Source: Zhang, Q. M. (1994) Interior design classics. Beijing: China Building Industry Press.3.2 Form reiteration within categoriesWhy do certain types of interior decoration have similarities? According to social constructiontheory, knowledge is comprised of cultural tools. These tools exist in society before beinginternalised, and Individuals realise the internalisation of knowledge through their interaction10
with the social environment. In design practices, designers frequently refer to precedents orexisting design cases for help. Meanwhile, the clients might be influenced by their sharedknowledge and understanding of interior space. Thus, the clients coordinate with thedesigners, resulting in a specific type of architecture and interior decoration similarly usedbefore. However, it is worth noting that in typology, duplication does not merely relate toplagiarism. Steadman (2014) distinguished between duplication and modelling. That is tosay, the model is a complete copy, whereas the duplication reflected in the building types isnot a simple copy of the overall shape and layout. Duplication also does not mean merelycopying parts and assembling them according to a standard set of rules. Therefore,duplication refers to a repetition of the basic features in architectural and interior decorationrather than the exact replication of specific decorative patterns. In the field of interior design,due to the complex details of interiors, even plagiarised replication has the topologicalfeatures of a prototype and variant. At the same time, as technology develops, the variantchanges of prototypes would be more intentional. In the manual era, hand printing producesroughly similar copying; in the machine age, mechanical printing created reproduction; andin the digital time, direct control of digital equipment creates accurate replication. Obviously,before the digital replication era, due to the uncontrollable factors during the transfer process,morphs are unavoidable.This kind of duplication is similar to biological evolution. The theory of natural evolutionprovides a reference for understanding architectural reproduction. The change of physicalform, based on specific rules, mainly comes from the shift in biological structure. Every turnof the biological system results from the previous change of form. Darwin's theory ofevolution is primarily based on three points: mutation theory (as well as the theory ofinheritance); variation theory (which we now know leads to gene mutations); and selectiontheory (Darwin's most lasting impact theory, which says each generation is based onadaptive genetic variation). In the late 19th century, biologists focused on how variationarose. The German biologist Ernst Haeckel tried to find clues in embryonic development(Kirschner, 2009).Relatively speaking, interior design also has characteristics similar to biological duplication.All the new variants come from the adaptation to the new context with a balance betweeninheritance and mutation of the prototype.Figure 11. Austrian Travel Agency by Hans Hollein using brass palm tree for decoration(1970s).Source: Mi, J. R. (1991). Exploration of the overseas - On the interior design of Austrian Travel Agency and PlazaHotel. Interior,1, 18-19 and 27.11
Figure 12. Zhuhai Jinyi hotel using brass palm tree for decoration (1992).Source: Zhang, Q. M. (1994) Interior design classics. Beijing: China Building Industry Press.Figure 13. self-duplication approach traverse different times.Source: Wang, H. (2015). Chinese Contemporary Design Collection Series. Beijing: Commercial Press.Moreover, the loose connection between function and form in interior decoration makesduplication have fewer constraints. Mostly, function plays a leading role, but it does not havea decisive significance. Patterns reflect the influences of many different elements, includingpolitics, culture, economy and technology. Before the reform and opening-up policy in China,political factors had a significant impact on architecture and interior decoration. Decorativesymbols reflecting socialist ideology can be seen in buildings with different functions. Afterthese policies symbols indicating economic factors were widely used in buildings withdifferent functions.Besides, architectural and interior decoration patterns have disseminated more widelythrough such medias as publications, magazines, conferences, seminars and competitions.During the early years of the opening-up policy, these medias gained deep recognition.Examples include the ‘Interior Design Knowledge Collection’, edited by the Central Academyof Arts and Crafts; the annual conferences by the Chinese Architectural Society's interiordesign branch (founded in 1986); interior design competitions sponsored by New ZealandWool Bureau, and the ‘Interior Design and construction’ magazine. At that time, because ofthe limited information pathways, these medias became the primary knowledge reference formany interior designers.In terms of implementation, duplication includes external duplication and self-duplication.External duplication represents an international influence, whereas self-duplication stands12
for the assimilation and the transforma
'Interior Design and construction', founded in 1986 and later chosen as the journal for the Chinese Interior Decoration Association, has an enduring and wide-spread influence in the Chinese interior design industry (Zeng, 2002). Among all the periodicals, the journal most specialises in reporting and promoting China's interior design development.
May 02, 2018 · D. Program Evaluation ͟The organization has provided a description of the framework for how each program will be evaluated. The framework should include all the elements below: ͟The evaluation methods are cost-effective for the organization ͟Quantitative and qualitative data is being collected (at Basics tier, data collection must have begun)
Silat is a combative art of self-defense and survival rooted from Matay archipelago. It was traced at thé early of Langkasuka Kingdom (2nd century CE) till thé reign of Melaka (Malaysia) Sultanate era (13th century). Silat has now evolved to become part of social culture and tradition with thé appearance of a fine physical and spiritual .
On an exceptional basis, Member States may request UNESCO to provide thé candidates with access to thé platform so they can complète thé form by themselves. Thèse requests must be addressed to esd rize unesco. or by 15 A ril 2021 UNESCO will provide thé nomineewith accessto thé platform via their émail address.
̶The leading indicator of employee engagement is based on the quality of the relationship between employee and supervisor Empower your managers! ̶Help them understand the impact on the organization ̶Share important changes, plan options, tasks, and deadlines ̶Provide key messages and talking points ̶Prepare them to answer employee questions
Dr. Sunita Bharatwal** Dr. Pawan Garga*** Abstract Customer satisfaction is derived from thè functionalities and values, a product or Service can provide. The current study aims to segregate thè dimensions of ordine Service quality and gather insights on its impact on web shopping. The trends of purchases have
Chính Văn.- Còn đức Thế tôn thì tuệ giác cực kỳ trong sạch 8: hiện hành bất nhị 9, đạt đến vô tướng 10, đứng vào chỗ đứng của các đức Thế tôn 11, thể hiện tính bình đẳng của các Ngài, đến chỗ không còn chướng ngại 12, giáo pháp không thể khuynh đảo, tâm thức không bị cản trở, cái được
LEARN CHINESE WITH ASSIMIL: WITH EASE SERIES Chinese With Ease volume 1 Chinese With Ease volume 2 Writing Chinese With Ease PHRASEBOOK SERIES Chinese phrasebook WORKBOOK SERIES Chinese workbook st 0 s Chinese The basics 9.90 ISBN: 978-2-7005-0765-2 www.assimil.com Chinese: The basics 9:HS
Google Pinyin Input (for typing Chinese characters on your phone) Learn Mandarin Chinese HSK Words - LingoDeer (for Chinese vocabulary) . Yoyo Chinese (for vocabulary, grammar, and cultural lessons) Chinese Buddy (for vocabulary, songs in Chinese) COURSE CALENDAR: Week Content (NB: lessons 1-7 were covered in Chinese 1A & Chinese 1B) 1 .
