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[ FOUNDATIONS of HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT Richard A. Swanson Elwood F. Holton III

Foundations of Human Resource Development Copyright 2001 by Richard A. Swanson and Elwood F. Holton III All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions Coordinator,” at the address below. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. 235 Montgomery Street, Suite 650 San Francisco, California 94104-2916 Tel: (415) 288-0260, Fax: (415) 362-2512 www.bkconnection.com Ordering information for print editions Quantity sales. Special discounts are available on quantity purchases by corporations, associations, and others. For details, contact the “Special Sales Department” at the Berrett-Koehler address above. Individual sales. Berrett-Koehler publications are available through most bookstores. They can also be ordered directly from Berrett-Koehler: Tel: (800) 9292929; Fax: (802) 864-7626; www.bkconnection.com Orders for college textbook/course adoption use. Please contact BerrettKoehler: Tel: (800) 929-2929; Fax: (802) 864-7626. Orders by U.S. trade bookstores and wholesalers. Please contact Ingram Publisher Services, Tel: (800) 509-4887; Fax: (800) 838-1149; E-mail: customer.service@ingrampublisherservices.com; or visit www.ingrampublisher services.com/Ordering for details about electronic ordering. Berrett-Koehler and the BK logo are registered trademarks of Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. First Edition Hardcover print edition ISBN 978-1-57675-075-9 PDF e-book ISBN 978-1-57675-803-8 2008-1 Production management by Michael Bass Associates. Cover design by Richard Adelson.

Dedicated to the ACADEMY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT and its vision of leading the profession through research.

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Brief Contents PA R T O N E Introduction to Human Resource Development 1 1 HRD as a Professional Field of Practice 3 2 Basics of HRD 14 3 History of HRD 27 PA R T T W O Theory and Philosophy in Human Resource Development 63 4 Role of Theory and Philosophy in HRD 65 5 The Theory of HRD 86 PA R T T H R E E Perspectives of Human Resource Development 125 6 Paradigms of HRD 127 7 Perspectives on Learning in HRD 149 8 Perspectives on Performance in HRD 178 PA R T F O U R Developing Human Expertise through Personnel Training and Development 201 9 Overview of Personnel Training and Development 203 10 The Nature of Human Expertise 227 11 Personnel Training and Development Practices: From Individuals to Organizations 242 v

vi BRIEF CONTENTS PA R T F I V E Unleashing Human Expertise through Organization Development 257 12 Overview of Organization Development 259 13 The Nature of the Change Process 284 14 Organization Development Practices: From Organizations to Individuals 317 PA R T S I X Human Resource Development in the 21st Century 333 15 Strategies for Advancing HRD 335 16 Accountability in HRD 358 17 Globalization and Technology Challenges to HRD 379 Name Index 421 Subject Index 426 The Authors 437

Contents List of Figures xii Preface xv PA R T O N E Introduction to Human Resource Development 1 1 HRD as a Professional Field of Practice 3 Purpose of HRD 3 Definition of HRD 4 Origins of HRD 8 HRD Context 9 HRD Core Beliefs 9 HRD as a Discipline and a Professional Field of Practice 11 Conclusion 12 Reflection Questions 12 2 Basics of HRD 14 Points of Agreement 15 HRD Worldviews 18 HRD Process 22 Threats to a Systematic Approach 23 Ethics and Integrity Standards 24 Conclusion 26 Reflection Questions 26 3 History of HRD 27 The Beginnings: Survival Through Labor and Learning 29 100 B.C.-300 A.D.: The Influence of the Greek and Romans 30 300-1300 A.D.: The Middle Ages 32 1400-1800 A.D.: The Renaissance 35 Apprenticeship in Colonial America 38 vii

viii CONTENTS The Industrial Era 40 Twentieth-Century Influences 44 Evolution of the Organization Development Component of HRD 47 Management and Leadership Development in the United States 52 Emergence of the HRD Research Community 57 Reflection Questions 62 PA R T T W O Theory and Philosophy in Human Resource Development 63 4 Role of Theory and Philosophy in HRD 65 Importance of Theory 66 Recognizing the Theory-Building Journey as Scholarship 67 Requirements of a Sound Theory 69 Philosophy and Theory Underlying HRD 69 Philosophical Metaphors for HRD Theory and Practice 70 Conclusion 84 Reflection Questions 85 5 The Theory of HRD 86 The Discipline of Human Resource Development 88 Psychology and the Discipline of HRD—Contributions and Limitations 100 Economics—Human Capital Theory and Human Resource Development 106 System Theory as a Foundation for HRD 114 Conclusion 124 Reflection Questions 124 PA R T T H R E E Perspectives of Human Resource Development 125 6 Paradigms of HRD 127 Overview of HRD Paradigms 128 Debates About Learning and Performance 130 Philosophical Views of Learning and Performance 131 Learning Paradigm of HRD 134 Performance Paradigm of HRD 137 Reconciling the Two Paradigms 145 Conclusion 147 Reflection Questions 147

CONTENTS ix 7 Perspectives on Learning in HRD 149 Metatheories of Learning 150 Middle-Range Learning Models at the Individual Level 158 Middle-Range Learning Models at the Organizational Level 171 Conclusion 177 Reflection Questions 177 8 Perspectives on Performance in HRD 178 Disciplinary Perspectives on Performance 179 Individual-Level Performance Models 184 Multilevel Performance Models 188 Conclusion 200 Reflection Questions 200 PA R T F O U R Developing Human Expertise through Personnel Training and Development 201 9 Overview of Personnel Training and Development 203 Views of T&D 204 Key T&D Terms 208 The General T&D Process 210 Instructional Systems Development (ISD) 211 Training for Performance System (TPS) 211 T&D Roles and Responsibilities 222 Comparison of Selected T&D Models 224 Conclusion 226 Reflection Questions 226 10 The Nature of Human Expertise 227 Operational Definitions of Expertise and Competence 228 The Rationale for an Operational Definition of Expertise 228 The Theoretical Perspectives of Expertise 230 The Formulation of an Operational Definition of Human Expertise 236 The Implications for HRD 239 Conclusion 241 Reflection Questions 241 11 Personnel Training and Development Practices: From Individuals to Organizations 242 Variations in T&D Practices 243 Core T&D Practices 244

x CONTENTS Individual-Focused T&D Practices 246 Group-Focused T&D Practices 248 Organization-Focused T&D Practices 252 Conclusion 254 Reflection Questions 255 PA R T F I V E Unleashing Human Expertise through Organization Development 257 12 Overview of Organization Development 259 Views of OD 260 Key OD Terms 269 The General OD Process 272 Action Research (Problem-Solving Method) 273 Organization Development for Performance System 275 Comparison of Core OD Models 280 Conclusion 282 Reflection Questions 283 13 The Nature of the Change Process 284 Definitions of Change in HRD 285 Core Dimensions of Change 287 Change Outcomes 290 Overarching Perspectives on Change 291 Fundamental Steps of Change 296 Resistance to Change 297 Focused Theoretical Perspectives on Change 301 Stages of the Organizational Change Leadership Process 314 Conclusion 315 Reflection Questions 316 14 Organization Development Practices: From Organizations to Individuals 317 Variations in OD Practices 318 Core OD Practices 320 Organization-Focused OD Practices 321 Work Process-Focused OD 324 Group-Focused OD 328 Individual-Focused OD 329 Conclusion 332 Reflection Questions 332

CONTENTS xi PA R T S I X Human Resource Development in the 21st Century 333 15 Strategies for Advancing HRD 335 Schools of Strategic Thinking 336 The Strategic Roles of Human Resource Development 339 Adopting a Strategic HRD Perspective 346 Scenario Building Plus Strategic Planning 351 Conclusion 356 Reflection Questions 357 16 Accountability in HRD 358 The Program Evaluation Approach to Accountability 359 The Metrics Approach to Accountability 368 Meeting the Accountability Challenge 377 Reflection Questions 378 17 Globalization and Technology Challenges to HRD 379 Globalization Challenge to HRD 380 Technology Challenge to HRD 382 Conclusion 385 Reflection Questions 385 References 387 Name Index 421 Subject Index 426 The Authors 437

List of Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Basic Systems Model 17 HRD in Context of the Organization and Environment 19 Andragogy in Practice 20 Nine Performance Variables 21 4.1 4.2 The Psychological Life Span 71 Theory-Research-Development-Practice Cycle 84 5.1 5.7 Model of Human Resource Development within the Organization and Environment 91 The Theoretical Foundations of Human Resource Development 93 Foundational Psychological Theories and Their Contribution to HRD 102 Performance Domains and Metrics 107 A Model of Human Capital Theory 110 A Cross-section of the Systems Leg: Contributions of System Theory 117 Current Limitations of System Theory as a Foundation for HRD 123 6.1 Comparison of the Learning and Performance Paradigms 129 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Five Orientations to Learning 151 The Information-Processing Model 154 Process Elements of Andragogy 160 Andragogy in Practice Model 162 Individual Learner Differences 166 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model 167 Reconceptualized Informal and Incidental Learning Model 170 Watkins and Marsick’s Learning Organization Action Imperatives 175 Learning Organization Performance Model 176 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiii 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9.1 9.2 9.3 Perspectives on Domain of Performance 179 Campbell’s Job Performance Components 185 Gilbert’s Behavior Engineering Model 187 Rummler and Brache’s (1995) Performance Model 189 Questions at Each Level of the Rummler an Brache Model 190 Swanson’s Performance Diagnosis Matrix 194 Cummings and Worley’s Organization Development Performance Model 195 Holton’s Integrated Taxonomy of Performance Domains 196 Integrated View of Performance Domains, Outcomes, and Drivers 200 9.6 9.7 9.8 Swanson’s Taxonomy of Performance 205 Marsick and Watkins’s Informal and Incidental Learning Model 207 The Model of Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development 212 Training for Performance System 213 Steps within the Process Phases of the Training for Performance System 214 Organizational Diagnosis Process 215 Documenting Workplace Expertise 215 Training Strategy Model 216 10.1 10.2 10.3 The Basic Components of Expertise 233 Competence of a Subset of Expertise 238 The Limitations of Competence 240 11.1 11.2 Analyzing Systems Tasks 251 Scrap and Rework Chart for a Fortune 100 Food-Processing Company before and after Implementing the TPS 252 Process-Referenced Expertise 253 Performance Roundtable 255 9.4 9.5 11.3 11.4 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Organization Development Definitions 261 Ten Key Dependent Variables from Definitions of Organizational Development 267 Strategic Organizational Planning (SOP) 270 Definitions of Key OD Terms 270 Action Research Model 274 Organization Development for Performance System 277 13.1 13.2 Types of Organizational Change 290 Porras and Silvers’s Model of Change Outcomes 292

xiv LIST OF FIGURES 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Process Theories of Organizational Development and Change 296 Three-Step Model Comparison 298 Possible Causes of Resistance to Change 299 Relationship Map for Computec, Inc. 303 The Rummler-Brache Process Improvement and Management Methodology 304 13.8 Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Performance and Change 305 13.9 Adopter Categories 306 13.10 The Three Universal Processes of Managing for Quality 308 13.11 Cummings and Worley’s Five Stages of Change 314 13.12 Kotter’s Eight Stages of Change 315 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 The OD Cube: A Scheme for Classifying OD Intervention 319 Shewart’s Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle 325 Process Improvement and Process Innovation 326 High-Level Depiction of the Process Innovation 326 The Five Phases of Benchmarking Process 327 Cultural Values and Organization Customs 330 15.1 15.2 15.3 Ten Schools of Strategic Thinking 336 Strategic Organizational Planning (SOP) 353 Human Resource Development’s Contribution in Supporting and Shaping SOP 354 16.1 Percentage of Programs and Organizations Using Each Level of Evaluation 362 ASTD Training Metrics 369 Skandia Corp. Development Metrics 373 Development Metrics from the Intangible Asset Monitor 373 Human Resource Development Metrics 375 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5

Preface Human resource development (HRD) is a very large field of practice and a relatively young academic discipline. Furthermore, HRD is deeply concerned about the dynamic issues of individual and organizational change. Such a profession is in need of a complete and thoughtful foundational text. That is the purpose of this book. The intention is that this foundation book will serve the needs of both practitioners and academics for the purpose of adding clarity to their professional journeys. While we have a personal preference as to the purpose and primary means of doing HRD work, the attempt has been to provide a fair review of the range of major views that exist in the profession. This is not a principles-of-practice book. Many books in HRD outline their version of “best practices” but do not probe more deeply to the underlying foundations of practice. This book does the opposite. For the most part, we define the underlying foundations while providing an overview of practice. Readers who seek a deeper understanding of core models that undergird best practice; who seek to understand the history and philosophies in HRD; who want to think more deeply about learning, performance, and change; and who prefer to be reflective about their practice rather than blindly follow the latest formulas will find this book a refreshing and thoughtful explication of the field. Because the discipline of HRD is so young, there has been little work to define the foundations of the field. Our struggle with this book has been to draw boundaries without building walls. For us this book continues the conversation about the foundations of the field. In a discipline as young as HRD, a consensus about foundations will be a work in progress for many years. This book is directed toward several audiences. First, it is designed for university courses in HRD. We argue that every HRD academic program needs a course that teaches the foundations of the field. Second, HRD researchers will find the book thought-provoking and useful as a guide to core research issues. Third, it is written for reflective practitioners who actively seek to lead the field as it grows and matures. Finally, almost every practitioner will find parts of the book that will add depth to their practice. xv

xvi PREFACE The seventeen chapters of the book are organized into six parts. The first part, “Introduction to Human Resource Development,” establishes a basic understanding as to what HRD is, the general HRD model and process it relies on to do its work, and the history of HRD. Part Two, “Theory and Philosophy in Human Resource Development,” provides the critical theoretical and philosophical foundations of HRD. Both of these perspectives have generally been missing among HRD professionals and are believed to be essential for understanding and advancing the field. The third part is titled “Perspectives of Human Resource Development,” and it explicates the learning and performance paradigms of HRD and associated models within each. An attempt is made in this section to clarify the learning-performance perspectives and their logical connection. The next part, “Developing Human Expertise through Personnel Training and Development,” captures the essence of the personnel training and development component of HRD as well as the nature of human expertise. Illustrations of personnel training and development practice that exist in host organizations are presented along with variations in core thinking, processes, interventions, and tools. Part Five, “Unleashing Human Expertise through Organization Development,” describes the essence of the organization development component of HRD as well as the nature of the change process. This section presents examples of organization development as well as variations in core thinking, processes, interventions, and tools. The sixth and final part is titled “Human Resource Development in the Twenty-first Century” and serves as a springboard into the future based on best practices and identification of the twenty-first-century challenges to HRD. Major issues for HRD—strategic roles of HRD, accountability in HRD, and the globalization and technology challenges to HRD—are carefully explained. Our sincere thanks go to the many HRD scholars throughout the world and their good work. They have made this book possible. We especially thank several of our colleagues for allowing us to include portions of their work in this book as well as for their critical review of the full manuscript: Richard W. Herling (chapter 10), Sharon S. Naquin (chapter 16), Wendy E. A. Ruona (chapter 5), Richard J. Torraco (chapters 5 and 15), and Karen E. Watkins (chapter 4). Additional critical reviews were provided by K. Peter Kuchinke, Susan A. Lynham, and Michael J. Marquardt. Our organizational partners also deserve recognition. We are grateful for the support we receive from the Academy of Human Resource Development, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Louisiana State University, and the University of Minnesota. Richard A. Swanson Elwood F. Holton III

P A R T O N E [ Introduction to Human Resource Development This first section establishes a basic understanding as to what HRD is, the basics of HRD that it relies on to do its work, and the history of HRD. CHAPTERS 1 HRD as a Professional Field of Practice 2 Basics of HRD 3 History of HRD 1

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C H A P T E R 1 [ HRD as a Professional Field of Practice C HAPTER OUTLI N E Purpose of HRD Definition of HRD Origins of HRD HRD Context HRD Core Beliefs HRD as a Discipline and a Professional Field of Practice Conclusion Reflection Questions Human resource development (HRD) is a relatively young academic discipline but an old well-established field of practice. The idea of human beings purposefully developing, in anticipation of being able to improve conditions, seems almost part of human nature. HRD theory and practice are deeply rooted in this developing and advancing perspective. This first chapter serves to highlight briefly the purpose, definition, origins, context, and core beliefs of HRD. These highlights are meant to provide an initial understanding of HRD and an advanced organizer for the book. The chapters that follow fully explore the depth and range of thinking within the theory and practice of HRD. PURPOSE OF HRD HRD is about adult human beings functioning in productive systems. The purpose of HRD is to focus on the resource that humans bring to the success equation— both personal success and organizational success. The two core threads of HRD are (1) individual and organizational learning and (2) individual and organizational 3

4 HRD AS A PROFESSIONAL FIELD OF PRACTICE performance (Ruona, 2000; Watkins & Marsick, 1996; Swanson, 1996a). Some view learning and performance as alternatives or rivals, while most see them as partners in a formula for success. Thus, assessment of HRD successes or results can be categorized into the domains of learning and performance. In all cases the intent is improvement. DEFINITION OF HRD HRD has numerous definitions. Throughout the book, we will continue to reflect on alternative views of HRD to allow readers an exposure to the range of thinking in the profession. The definition we choose to support is as follows: HRD is a process for developing and unleashing human expertise through organization development and personnel training and development for the purpose of improving performance. It is useful to recognize that alternative definitions of HRD have been presented over the years. For example, a recent definition took an inclusive international perspective of HRD that finds HRD functioning as an agent of societal and national development, not just focused on organizations. It reads as follows: “Human Resource Development is any process or activity that, either initially or over the long term, has the potential to develop adults’ work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity, and satisfaction, whether for personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit of an organization, community, nation, or, ultimately, the whole of humanity” (McLean & McLean, 2000). Figure 1.1 provides a historical summary of the HRD definitions found in the literature through 1998 (Weinberger, 1998). Figure 1.1 Human Resource Development Definition Summary KEY COMPONENTS UNDERLYING THEORIES “HRD is a series of organized activities conducted within a specified time and designed to produce behavioral change” (p. 3). Behavioral change; adult learning Psychological “HRD focus is on the central goal of developing human potential in every aspect of lifelong learning.” Human performance Philosophical; psychological AUTHOR DEFINITION Nadler (1970) Craig (1976)

Definition of HRD 5 KEY COMPONENTS UNDERLYING THEORIES Performance, organizational, and personal goals Philosophical; system; psychological; economic AUTHOR DEFINITION Jones (1981) “HRD is a systematic expansion of people’s work-related abilities, focused on the attainment of both organization and personal goals” (p. 188). McLagan (1983) “Training and development Training and is identifying, assessing and— development through planned learning— helping develop the key competencies which enable individuals to perform current or future jobs” (p. 25). Psychological Chalofsky and Lincoln (1983) Discipline of HRD is the study of how individuals and groups in organizations change through learning. Psychological Nadler and Wiggs (1986) “HRD is a comprehensive Formal and learning system for the informal adult release of the organization’s learning; human potentials—a performance system that includes both vicarious (classroom, mediated, simulated) learning experiences and experiential, on-the-job experiences that are keyed to the organization’s reason for survival” (p. 5). System; economic; psychological Swanson (1987) HRD is a process of improv- Organizational ing an organization’s perperformance formance through the capabilities of its personnel. HRD includes activities dealing with work design, aptitude, expertise, and motivation. Economic; psychological; philosophical; system Jacobs (1988) Human performance Organizational technology is the developand individual ment of human performance performance systems and the management of the resulting systems, using a systems approach to achieve organizational and individual goals. System Adult learning (Continued)

6 HRD AS A PROFESSIONAL FIELD OF PRACTICE Figure 1.1 Continued KEY COMPONENTS UNDERLYING THEORIES “HRD consists of programs and activities, direct and indirect, instructional and/or individual that positively affect the development of the individual and the productivity and profit of the organization” (p. 1). Training and development; organizational performance Economic; system; psychological McLagan (1989) “HRD is the integrated use of training and development, career development and organizational development to improve individual and organizational effectiveness” (p. 7). Training and development; career development; organizational development Psychological; system; economic Watkins (1989) “HRD is the field of study and practice responsible for the fostering of a long-term, work-related learning capacity at the individual, group and organizational level of organizations. As such, it includes—but is not limited to—training, career development and organizational development” (p. 427). Learning capacity training and development; career development; organizational development Psychological; system; economic; performance Gilley and England (1989) “HRD is organized learning Learning activities; activities arranged within performance an organization to improve improvement performance and/or personal growth for the purpose of improving the job, the individual and/or the organization” (p. 5). Psychological; system; economic; performance Nadler and Nadler (1989) “HRD is organized learning experiences provided by employees within a specified period of time to bring about the possibility of performance improvement and/or personal growth” (p. 6). Performance psychological AUTHOR DEFINITION R. Smith (1988) Learning; performance improvement

Definition of HRD 7 KEY COMPONENTS UNDERLYING THEORIES AUTHOR DEFINITION D. Smith (1990) “HRD is the process of Performance determining the optimum improvement methods of developing and improving the human resources of an organization and the systematic improvement of the performance and productivity of employees through training, education and development and leadership for the mutual attainment of organizational and personal goals” (p. 16). Performance system; psychological; economic Chalofsky (1992) “HRD is the study and practice of increasing the learning capacity of individuals, groups, collectives and organizations through the development and application of learning-based interventions for the purpose of optimizing human and organizational growth and effectiveness” (p. 179). Learning capacity; performance improvement System; psychological; human performance Marquardt and Engel (1993) HRD skills include developing a learning climate, designing training programs, transmitting information and experience, assessing results, providing career counseling, creating organizational change, and adapting learning materials. Learning climate; performance improvement Psychological; human performance Marsick and Watkins (1994) “HRD as a combination of training, career development, and organizational development offers the theoretical integration need to envision a learning organization, but it must also be positioned to act strategically throughout the organization” (p. 355). Training and development; career development; organizational development; learning organization Human performance; organizational performance; system; economic; psychological (Continued)

8 HRD AS A PROFESSIONAL FIELD OF PRACTICE Figure 1.1 Continued AUTHOR DEFINITION Swanson (1995) “HRD is a process of developing and unleashing human expertise through organization development and personnel training and development for the purpose of improving performance” (p. 208). KEY COMPONENTS UNDERLYING THEORIES Training and development and Organization development; performance improvement at the organization, work process, and individuals levels System; psychological; economic Source: Weinberger (1998, pp. 77–79). Used with permission. You can think of HRD in more than one way. Our preferred definition of HRD describes HRD as a process. Using the process perspective, HRD can be thought of as both a system and a journey. This perspective does not inform us as to who does HRD or where it resides in the organization. At the definitional level, it is useful to think about HRD as a process and specifically as a process open to engaging different people at different times and to locating HRD in different places inside and outside the host organization. Another way to talk about HRD is to refer to it as a department, function, and job. It can be thought of as an HRD department or division in a particular organization with people working as HRD managers, HRD specialists, and so forth. Furthermore, these people work in HRD spaces called HRD centers, training rooms, retreat centers, and corporate universities. HRD can also be identified in terms of the context and content it supports—for example, insurance sales training and insurance sales organization development. Even with these department, function job, and physical space titles, HRD can also be defined as a process. We have identified two major realms of focus within HRD. One is organization development (OD); the other is personnel training and development (T&D). As implied by their names, OD primarily focuses at the organization level and connects with individuals, while T&D primarily focuses on individuals and connects with the organization. The realms of career development, quality, and performance improvement are important extensions of HRD theory and practice. ORIGINS OF HRD It is easy to logically connect the origins of HRD to the history of humankind and the training required to survive or advance. While HRD is a relatively new term, training—the largest component of HRD—can be tracked back through evolu-

HRD Core Beliefs 9 tion of the human race. Chapter 3 on the field’s history provides the long-range view of the profession. For now, it is important to recognize the massive development effort that took place in the United States during World War II as the origin of contemporary HRD. Under the name of the “Training within Industry” project (Dooley, 1945), this massive development effort gave birth to systematic (1) performance-based training, (2) improvement of work processes, and (3) the improvement of human relations in the workplace—contemporary HRD. HRD CONTEXT The context in which HRD functions is almost always within a host organization. The organization can be a corporation, business, industry, government agency, or a nonprofit organization—large or small. The host organization is a system having a mission with mission-driven goals and outpu

PDF e-book ISBN 978-1-57675-803-8 2008-1 Production management by Michael Bass Associates. Cover design by Richard Adelson. . Human Resource Development in the 21st Century 333 15 Strategies for Advancing HRD 335 16 Accountability in HRD 358 17 Globalization and Technology Challenges to HRD 379

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