Township Renewal Sourcebook - SA Cities

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townshiprenewalsourcebook

CONTENTSTownship Renewal SourcebookFirst published 2009acronymsivSouth African Cities NetworkforewordvPO Box 32160Braamfontein 2017ISBN 978-0-9814382-0-7 South African Cities NetworkAll rights reserved. Individuals and institutions are free to use the contents of this publicationModule 1:Introducing and contextualising the township renewal challengein South Africafor non-commercial purposes, provided that proper acknowledgement and references aremade. Any other types of use requires prior permission from the publisher.Editing and production: Clarity EditorialModule 2:Unlocking township marketsDesign and layout: Cristal SmithPrinted by Formeset, Cape TownModule 3:Restructuring the township physical environmentModule 4:Packaging township development projectsModule 5:Improving urban management in townshipsacknowledgementsThis Sourcebook is comprised of a number of TTRI papers and material presentedat TTRI learning events in 2008 and 2009. Recognition is therefore given to the vastrange of authors and experts who have contributed to this body of information.Sharon Lewis of SACN managed the overall Sourcebook project. Clive Forstercoordinated the content development and edited four of the modules onbehalf of TTRI. Felicity Kitchin and Wendy Ovens edited Module 2 on behalf of TTRIsupporting partner, Urban Landmark. Significant contributions and reviews wereprovided by Matt Cullinan, Bernadette Leon, Li Pernegger, Mark Napier, SusannaGodehart, Taryn Elliott, Jeffrey McCarthy, Sharon Lewis and Geci /bo/ndp/ttri.All photographs courtesy of partners and partner projects.iiiii

his Sourcebook is a product of theTraining for Township Renewal Initiative(TTRI) – a joint project of the NationalTreasury, the Department of Provincialand Local Government and the SouthAfrican Cities Network. The projecthas received assistance from theFinMark Trust, Urban Landmark and theDevelopment Bank of Southern Africa.Area-based InitiativesArea-based ManagementBlack Economic EmpowermentBuild/Operate/TransferBusiness Sophistication ModelCentral Business DistrictDepartment of Corporate Governance andTraditional Affairs (ex DPLG)Council for Scientific and Industrial ResearchDepartment of Provincial and Local GovernmentGross Domestic ProductHigh-Occupancy VehicleInanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashuKwaMashu Town CentreMitchells Plain Town CentreMunicipal Service PartnershipsNeighbourhood Development ProgrammeNeighbourhood Development Partnership GrantNational Qualifications FrameworkNational Spatial Development PerspectiveReconstruction and Development ProgrammeSouth African Cities NetworkSpecial Integrated Presidential ProjectsUniversity of South AfricaUrban Renewal ProgrammeThe purpose of this initiative is topromote and support developmentand renewal in South Africa’s townships,where some 40 per cent of the country’surban population resides. The initiativecentres on training, helping to buildlocal expertise to conceptualise, designand implement township developmentprojects countrywide. The expectedoutcomes of the project are: A clear progression from the urbandevelopment strategy level ofplanning to the development ofneighbourhood or precinct-levelplans for the regeneration andrestructuring of townships. The development of a pipelineof potential projects that areappropriate and feasible, andwhich can be funded by nationalgovernment grants, private investorsor municipalities. A larger pool of local projectmanagers who can coordinateproject partners, engage localcommunities, account to municipalcouncils and other funders, andproject manage construction andurban management interventions.The Township Renewal Sourcebookis the foundation material for allpractitioners entering the TTRIprogramme; it will also be circulatedmore broadly among townshipdevelopment practitioners and trainers.While TTRI products are developedprimarily for an audience of publicsector officials with post-matricqualification, the Sourcebook hasbeen designed as a practical toolthat is readily accessible to a nontechnical audience.ivThe Sourcebook is presented infive modules: Module 1: Introducing the townshiprenewal challenge, provides anoverview of South Africa’s urbanlandscape, summarises policiesthat promote socio-economicdevelopment in townships, andreviews strategic outcomes. Module 2: Unlocking townshipmarkets, provides a frameworkfor identifying areas of economicintervention with a high potentialfor success, focusing on the labour,commercial, services and residentialmarkets. Module 3: Restructuring the townshipphysical environment, examinesthe range of public-sector physicalinterventions that can be applied tosupport development. Module 4: Packaging townshipdevelopment projects, reviews the keyelements for the success of physicalinterventions in townships, as wellas the preconditions for mobilisingprivate-sector investment. Module 5: Improving urbanmanagement in townships, looksat the regulatory, operational andmaintenance factors needed tosupport township development.Several case studies are included inthe Sourcebook. Over time, new casestudies will be added, and existingones updated, to ensure that thematerial presented in the Sourcebookdraws on current best practice.In addition, Powerpoint presentationson a handy flash drive provide anoverview and synthesis of the contentin each module and case study.The TTRI project values any commentsthat you may have after completingthis Sourcebook. You can reach us at:XXXXXXXXXXXXXThe Project Partnersv

Module 11.1 IntroductionIntroducing the TownshipRenewal ChallengeThe purpose of this first module is tooutline a broad understanding of themain challenges in township renewal,and the developmental outcomesthat can be targeted in this context.This module: Examines the historical origins oftownships, and their inherited physicaland social legacies. Reviews current conditions inSouth African townships. Touches on relevant internationalpractice adopted to deal withsimilar renewal challenges.1.1Introduction1.2Origins of South African townships1.3The urban landscape today1.4International experience in addressing exclusion areas1.5Township development policy in South Africa1.6Township renewal outcomes1.7Conclusion Discusses township renewal inrelation to government policyand development prioritiesand programmes. Introduces broad outcomes fortownship renewal.Given the complex and varied natureof developmental challenges in SouthAfrican townships, this module focuses onkey problems and highlights a systematicapproach to renewal. As someoneresponsible for township renewal, youcan anticipate that you will not be incontrol of addressing all the challenges,but will instead need to provide strategicguidance for priority programmes andprojects to help leverage change.3

Module 1INK and Umhlanga Ridge1.2 Origins of South AfricantownshipsColonial planningTownship establishment and growth, SowetoTownships were inspired by colonialtown planning. While at home theyare often considered a uniquely SouthAfrican creation, townships are foundin many African cities. The colonialplanners intended to physicallysegregate three classes of people,which generally coincided with race:New patternsAt the outset, the peripheral locationof many townships and their limitedtransport links to the cities was theworst aspect of spatial exclusion – andmost townships still face this problem.In some cases, however, cities haveexpanded so much that townshipsare no longer at the urbanperiphery. For example, Alexandra(Johannesburg) and Duncan Village(East London) are today extremelywell located from the point of view ofurban access. the white colonial elite the colonised middle-class madeup of Indians and some Africansemployed in the bureaucracy the urban majority of Africans.For the African working class, townshipswere planned some distance awayfrom the colonial towns. In South Africathe first ‘locations’ were founded morethan 100 years ago – the oldest existingone is New Brighton in Port Elizabeth,which was built in 1902-03. Betweenthe two world wars, municipalitiesbuilt a number of townships at theurban periphery, separated from thecities by green belts. Examples areLanga in Cape Town, Lamontvilleand Chesterville in Durban, andMeadowlands in Johannesburg.Apartheid townshipsMost large townships were builtor significantly expanded by theapartheid government after 1950.Through the enforcement of the GroupAreas Act (1950), accompanied byvarious elements of racially engineeredtown planning legislation, thegovernment forced the entire non-whiteurban population to live in townships.Such legislation determined strict racialseparation by stipulating that: ‘Each race group should have its ownconsolidated residential area.4blocked if residents began to organiseprotests against these conditions. ‘Each residential group area shouldbe separated by a strong physical‘buffer’ such as a river or ridge, or anindustrial or commercial area. Shouldbuffers of this kind not be available,then an open space or ‘buffer zone’was to be left between group areas.’(Smit 1989:103)These regulations, alongside massivehousing programmes initiated toaccommodate a growing urbanworking class, underpinned thecreation of townships and shapedSouth African cities in the unique waythat we see today.For black (African, Indian andColoured) South Africans, townshipswere areas of exclusion, control andcontainment, affecting every aspectof residents’ lives. Most townships werelinked to the city centre and industrialareas by a single road and possiblyone railway line, which could easily beThe figure shows how, over time,Soweto grew from a few small‘suburbs’ to the township it is today.(Source: ‘Change and Continuity’, 1999.Adapted City of Johannesburg 2006)In addition, new patterns of economicactivity have developed, particularlysince the early 1990s. In all large cities,new economic activity nodes havedeveloped outside the historic centralbusiness districts. Today, many cities are‘multinodal’, with economic activityand workplaces concentrated inseveral locations.These structural changes affecttownships in different ways. Manytownships, especially those built in the1970s and 1980s (e.g. Soshanguve inPretoria, Mdantsane in East Londonand Botshabelo outside Bloemfontein)remain far away from workopportunities. Others find themselvesclose to new economic nodes (e.g. INK[Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu],which lies one freeway exit awayfrom Umhlanga Ridge – the wealthybusiness/residential district of Durban).But proximity to urban growth nodeshas not resulted in integration or invisible development. The few townshipsthat are relatively well-located havebecome overcrowded as theybecome the place of choice for newmigrants into the cities, as is the caseThe figure showshow close (5km) theresidential conurbationsof Inanda, Ntuzumaand KwaMashu (INK)are to Umhlanga whilebeing quite far from theDurban CBD (20km).(Source: North CentralLocal Council 1998)in Alexandra and Duncan Village.Many residents of INK have found jobsat Umhlanga Ridge, but getting thereis difficult because Umhlanga Ridgewas planned without public transportlinks to the townships. In the eveningshundreds of black workers wait atmakeshift taxi ranks in the parking lot ofthe main shopping mall for transport.Since the 1990s, urban townships,well-located or not, have undergonemassive expansion as migrants fromthe rural areas have been drawn to thecities in search of work. The townshipsprovide cheap rental housing or theopportunity to build a shack.For apartheid’s planners, cheap andefficient movement of labour to andfrom work opportunities was never amajor factor in deciding on a newfactory or a new settlement for thepoor. This has left South Africa with avery expensive public transport system– costly for township residents to useand for the state to subsidise.In the 1950s the layout of manytownships was based on international5

Module 11.3 The urban landscape todayKwaMashu Master Plan, 1957Townships are an ever-present part ofthe urban landscape in South Africa.The typical city or town will contain amix of the following elements:The 1957 KwaMashu MasterPlan shows spaces for thecommercial centre and ninesub-centres indicated in blue.From the beginning the planningmodel contradicted the functionof townships as dormitorysuburbs of the working class.Local economies could neverdevelop because of low wagesand large amounts of moneyleaving the townships to pay forrent, fees, and services.Few public and private facilitieswere developed in townshipsand large portions of the mainand sub-centres remain vacantup to today.(Source: S. Godehart, 2006) Core and frame (fringe/periphery) Decentralised commercial centresand suburbs6 Declining residential neighbourhoodsEmerging data indicates that townshipsare largely – but not exclusively – anurban challenge. A quarter (24,,4 percent or about 11,6 million) of SouthAfrica’s population of 47,8 million peoplelive in the country’s 76 largest townships(Township Database, NDP Unit, 2007). Townships and post-apartheidadditions.Townships are also likely to be home tothe highest concentrations of poverty.These elements are discussed in detailin Module 3.Due to the historic social compression inracially segregated areas, old townshipsare socially, culturally and economicallydiverse. Many of them – especiallylarger townships – contain middle- and Industrial areas Upper- and middle-income residentialneighbourhoodsplanning models then in vogue.Master plans for South African townshipswere often based on the British ‘NewTowns’, which were generally plannedas independent towns with their owneconomies. In this model, large towncentres and generous sub-centres wereplanned to accommodate commercialand public facilities. Some of thisthinking is still on display in areassuch as KwaMashu.According to a 2004 study by FinMarkTrust, more than 40 per cent of SouthPopulation and poverty in selected cities3 500 0003 000 0001 500 0001 000 000500 000EkurhulenieThekwini0Nelson Mandela BayNumber of people in poverty (2005)2 000 000City of Cape TownPopulation (2005)2 500 000City of TshwaneThe graph shows the numberof people in poverty in selectedmunicipalities. This is defined aspeople living in households withmonthly incomes under certainthresholds, depending on householdsize. For 2005, the thresholdsvaried between R893 for a 1-personhousehold to R3 314 for an 8-personhousehold. Only the metropolitanmunicipalities are shown, but thesituation applies to smaller towns toan even higher degree.(Source: Global Insight: ReX Version2.0p (305))City of JohannesburgBut these virtually suburban planningmodels, with large vacant spaces andmainly freestanding houses, resultedin low residential densities and longtravelling distances, contributingto transport problems for the greatmajority of township residents. Oneresponse to this was the developmentof the taxi industry, which boostedresidents’ mobility. Scattered spazashops and other small service providersdeveloped primarily as a result ofgrowing unemployment, but werealso a response to the inconvenienceof long distances and the costs oftransport. There are about 750 000informal businesses located in townships,providing work for some 1.6 millionpeople. (Ligthelm, 2006)Africa’s urban population live intownships, and 20 per cent live ininformal settlements and low-incomehousing estates. For example, 43 percent of Johannesburg’s residents livein Soweto alone, and a total of 73 percent live in townships, informal areasand low-cost housing estates.7

Module 1Poverty pockets within townshipsIn total households in Alex earn anestimated R17,8 million per month.lower-income areas and scatteredmiddle-income households. However,most township residents are poor andunemployment rates are very high. Forexample, figures for Soweto show thatin 2004, 28 per cent of households hada monthly income below R800, andthat 40 per cent of economically activepeople were unemployed (City ofJohannesburg, 2005).The average household in Alex has 1.6 earners and an average income of R2 446 per month.Lowest incomes are in Transit Camp & Setswetla and highest in East Bank.Household incomesAnnual per household income (Rand, current prices)R180 0001.4 International experience inaddressing exclusion areasR160 000Income disparity is particularly evidentwhen the economic data for atownship is compared with the rest ofthe metropolitan area. These disparitiesare growing.Clearly, the benefits of economicgrowth for township residents havebeen far below expectations. For manypeople, townships have becomepoverty traps.Poverty trapsThe disparities between townshipsand the rest of the urban system doesnot mean that townships are universallypoor. Substantial differentiation doesoccur within townships, particularlybetween formal and informal, andestablished and new residents. Thegraph above, illustrates this reality.8Although the scale of exclusioncharacterising South Africantownships is vast, it is not uniqueto South Africa. Internationally, aconsiderable body of experiencehas been developed to addressurban exclusion.R140 000R120 000R100 000R80 000R60 000R40 000R20 owetoJoburgBetween 1996 and 2004 the average income of households in Soweto has grown very slowlycompared to those of Johannesburg and of South Africa. In 1996 the average income inJohannesburg was about 2,5 times as high as in Soweto; in 2004 it was nearly four times as high.(Source: City of Johannesburg, derived from Global Insight, 2005)As the South African Cities Network(SACN) Urban Renewal Overview(2003) notes: ‘internationally, residentsin exclusion areas typically manifestlow incomes but this is only onemanifestation of their distress. Thetendency for the poor to concentratein poor quality private or social rentedhousing is inextricably linked to theshortage of local jobs, poor transportaccess to employment opportunities,the lack of social networks to accessinformation on available jobs, lackof educational qualifications andvocational skills among residents, thestigmatisation of residents from areas,and the development of cultures ofpoverty’. (p 68)Many European programmes andprojects address such forces ofexclusion by applying the concept of‘inclusion’. As the SACN report notes,‘access to democratic and legalsystems promotes civic integration,access to the labour market promoteseconomic integration, and accessto welfare systems promotessocial integration ’Since exclusion is generallyconcentrated in specific areas, theinternational trend has been tofocus inclusion initiatives in spatial9

Module 1programmes known as area-basedinitiatives (ABIs). While there is aconsiderable difference between ABIsinternationally, all have three corefeatures: they are focused, areaoriented institutional mechanisms; theyaddress a range of sectors; and theyencourage ‘joining up’ mechanisms toget things done.In European development practices,outcomes are generally presented intwo categories: ‘For place’ outcomes target improvedneighbourhoods and residentialareas, public environments, newproperty investments and so on. ‘For people’ outcomes target theresidents of an area and seek toenhance education levels, skills,ability to compete for jobs and so on.Pursuit of these two sets of outcomes isnot necessarily incompatible.In fact, most recent practice in Europetargets both. However, planners need tobe clear about what balanceis being pursued (and why) fromthe outset. They also need toanticipate the longer-term effectsof any interventions.Gentrification, for example, is onearea where the achievement of ‘forplace’ outcomes can act against‘for people’ outcomes. Public-sectorinitiatives to turn around an area byimproving access, upgrading thepublic environment and stimulatingprope

IntroducIng the townshIp renewal challenge 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Origins of South African townships 1.3 The urban landscape today 1.4 International experience in addressing exclusion areas 1.5 Township development policy in South Africa 1.6 Township renewal outcomes 1.7 Conclusion Module 1 The purpose of thi

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