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Reverse OsmosisDesign, Processes, andApplications for EngineersJane KuceraScrivener WILEY
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Reverse Osmosis
Scrivener Publishing3 Winter Street, Suite 3Salem, MA 01970Scrivener Publishing Collections EditorsJames E. R. CouperRafiq IslamNorman LiebermanW. Kent MuhlbauerS. A. SherifRichard ErdlacPradip KhaladkarPeter MartinAndrew Y. C. NeeJames G. SpeightPiiblishers at ScriveiierMartin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Reverse OsmosisDesign, Processes, andApplications for EngineersJane KuceraScrivener WILEY
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For my dad; he’ll always be O.K.
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ContentsPrefacexviiPART 1 FUNDAMENTALS1 Introduction and History of Development31.1 Introduction31.1.1 Uses of Reverse Osmosis31.1.2 History of Reverse Osmosis Development51.1.3 Recent Advances in RO Membrane Technology 91.1.4 Future Advancements12References122Reverse Osmosis Principles2.1 Osmosis2.2 Reverse Osmosis2.3 Dead-End Filtration2.4 Cross-Flow Filtration3 Basic Terms and Definitions3.1 Reverse Osmosis System Flow Rating3.2 Recovery3.3 Rejection3.4 Flux3.5 Concentration Polarization3.6 Beta3.7 Fouling3.8 Scaling3.9 Silt Density Index3.10 Langelier Saturation ii
viiiCONTENTS4 Membranes4.1 Transport Models4.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Model(non-porous model)4.1.2 Solution - Diffusion ImperfectionModel (porous model)4.1.3 Finely-Porous Model(porous model)4.1.4 Preferential Sorption - CapillaryFlow Model (porous model)4.1.5 Phenomenological TransportRelationship (Irreversiblethermodynamics)4.2 Membrane Materials4.2.1 Cellulose AcetateMembranes-Asymmetricmembranes4.2.2 Polyamide and CompositeMembranes4.2.2.1 Linear Aromatic PolyamideMembranes4.2.2.2 Composite Polyamide Membranes4.2.3 Improvements to Polyamide,Composite Membranes4.2.4 Other Membrane Materials4.3 Membrane Modules4.3.1 Plate and Frame Modules4.3.2 Tubular Modules4.3.3 Spiral Wound Modules4.3.4 Hollow Fine Fiber MembraneModules4.3.5 Other Module Configurations4.4 Commercially-Available Membranes4.4.1 Seawater Membranes4.4.2 Brackish Water Membranes4.4.2.1 Low-Energy Membranes4.4.2.2 High-Rejection Membranes4.4.2.3 Low-Fouling 678797979
ixCONTENTSReferences54.4.2.4 Low-Differential-PressureMembrane Modules4.4.2.5 High-Productivity MembraneModules4.4.2.6 Other Membrane/ModuleTYPesBasic Flow Patterns5.1 Arrays5.2 Recycle5.3 Double Pass5.4 Multiple TrainsReverse Osmosis Skids6.1 Cartridge Filters6.2 Reverse Osmosis Feed Pumps6.3 Pressure Vessels6.4 Manifolding-Materials of Construction6.5 Instrumentation6.6 Controls6.7 Data Acquisition and Management6.8 Reverse Osmosis Skid6.9 Auxiliary Equipment6.10 Other Design Considerations6.10.1 Access to Profile and ProbeRO Membranes6.10.2 Interstage Performance MonitoringInstrumentation6.10.3 Stage-by-Stage Membrane CleaningReferences6PART 2 PRETREATMENT7 Water Quality Guidelines7.1 Suspended Solids7.2 Microbes7.3 Organics7.4 0121121121122122125125127128129
XCONTENTS7.5 Metals7.6 Hydrogen Sulfide7.7 Silica7.8 Calcium Carbonate7.9 Trace Metals-Barium and Strontium7.10 Chlorine7.11 Calcium7.12 Exposure to Other ChemicalsReferences1301311321341361361371391398 Techniques and Technologies8.1 Mechanical Pretreatment8.1.1 Clarifiers8.1.1.1 Solids-Contact Clarifiers8.1.1.2 Inclined-Plate Clarifiers8.1.1.3 Sedimentation Clarifiers8.1.1.4 Chemical Treatment for Clarifiers8.1.2 Multimedia Pressure Filters8.1.3 High-Efficiency Filters8.1.4 Carbon Filters8.1.5 Iron Filters8.1.5.1 Manganese Greensand Filters8.1.5.2 BIRM@Filters8.1.5.3 Filox Filters8.1.5.4 Other Iron Removal Media8.1.6 Sodium Softeners8.1.7 Spent Resin Filters8.1.8 Ultraviolet Irradiation8.1.9 Membrane8.2 Chemical Pretreatment8.2.1 Chemical Oxidizers for Disinfection ofReverse Osmosis Systems8.2.1.1 Chlorine8.2.1.2 Ozone8.2.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide8.2.2 Antiscalants8.2.3 Sodium Metabisulfite8.2.4 Non-Oxidizing Biocides8.2.4.1 Sodium 3163164167168169170171171176177177180182182
CONTENTS8.2.4.2 DBNPA8.2.4.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides8.3 Combination Mechanical Plus ChemicalPretreatment-Lime Softening8.3.1 Cold Lime Softening8.3.2 Warm Lime Softening8.3.3 Hot Process Softening8.4 Sequencing of Pretreatment RT 3 SYSTEM DESIGN9 Design Considerations9.1 Feed Water Quality9.1.1 Feed Water Source9.1.2 Total Dissolved Solids9.1.3 Calcium and Natural Organic Matter9.1.4 Chemical Damage9.2 Temperature9.3 Pressure9.4 Feed Water Flow9.5 Concentrate Flow9.6 Beta9.7 Recovery9.8 pH9.9 20720910 RO Design and Design Software10.1 ROSA Version 6.110.2 TorayDS Version 1.1.4410.3 Hydranautics IMS Design Version 200810.4 Koch Membranes ROPRO Version 7.0Reference211214221224230234PART 4 OPERATIONS11 On-Line Operations11.1 Reverse Osmosis Performance Monitoring11.2 Data Collection11.3 Data Analysis and Normalization237237237239209
xiiCONTENTS11.3.1 Data Normalization11.3.1.1 Normalized Product Flow11.3.1.2 Normalized Salt Passage11.3.1.3 Normalized Pressure Drop11.3.2 Normalization Software11.4 Preventive MaintenanceReferences23924024324524725025312 Performance Degradation12.1 Normalized Permeate Flow12.1.1 Loss of Normalized Permeate Flow12.1.1.1 Membrane Fouling12.1.1.2 Membrane Scaling12.1.1.3 Membrane Compaction12.1.2 Increase in Normalized Permeate Flow12.1.2.1 Membrane Degradation12.1.2.2 Hardware Issues12.2 Normalized Salt Rejection12.2.1 Loss of Salt Rejection12.2.1.1 Membrane Scaling12.2.1.2 Membrane degradation12.2.1.3 Hardware Issues12.2.2 Increase in Salt Rejection12.3 Pressure Drop12.3.1 Loss in Pressure Drop12.3.2 Increase in Pressure 25925925925926026026113 Off-Line Operations13.1 System Flush13.1.1 Off-Line Flush13.1.2 Return to Service Flush13.1.3 Stand-by Flush13.2 Membrane Cleaning13.2.1 When to Clean13.2.2 How to Clean13.2.3 Cleaning Chemicals13.2.3.1 High-pH cleaners263263263264265266266267270271
CONTENTSxiii13.2.3.2 Neutral-pH Cleaners13.2.3.3 Low-pH Cleaners13.2.3.4 Cleaners for Specific Foulantsand Scale13.2.4 Cleaning Equipment13.2.4.1 Cleaning Tank13.2.4.2 Cleaning Recirculation Pump13.2.4.3 Cartridge Filter13.3 Membrane Lay-Up13.3.1 Short-Term Lay-Up13.3.2 Long-Term ART 5 TROUBLESHOOTING14 Troubleshooting14.1 Mechanical Evaluation14.2 General Performance Issues14.3 System Design and Performance Projections14.3.1 System Design14.3.2 Performance Projections14.4 Data Assessment14.5 Water Sampling14.6 Membrane Integrity Testing14.7 Profiling and Probing14.8 Membrane Autopsy14.8.1 Visual Inspection14.8.2 Pressure Dye Test-Rhodamine B14.8.3 Methylene Blue Test14.8.4 Fujiwara Test14.8.5 Spectroscopy14.8.6 Other TestsReferences28328428528528528628729029 1291294295301301301302303304PART 6 SYSTEM ENGINEERING15 Issues Concerning System Engineering15.1 Sodium Water Softening15.1.1 Sequencing of the Sodium Softeners and RO15.1.2 Sodium Softening and AntiscalantsCase 1: High Hardness Well Water307307307309310
xivCONTENTSSodium SoftenerAn tiscalantSummaryCase 2: Low Hardness Surface WaterSodium SoftenerAn tiscalantSummaryCase 3: Well Water with Iron and ManganeseSodium SoftenerAntiscalant15.2 Reverse Osmosis Sizing and Capacity15.3 Membrane Cleaning: On-Site versus Off-Site15.3.1 Off-Site Membrane Cleaning15.3.2 On-Site Membrane Cleaning15.4 Reverse Osmosis Reject Disposal Options15.4.1 Discharge to Drain or Sewer15.4.2 Discharge to Cooling Tower15.4.3 Zero Liquid 1631731731831932032032132316 Impact of Other Membrane Technologies16.1 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration16.1.1 Microfiltration16.1.2 Ultrafiltration16.2 Nanofiltration16.3 Continuous Electrodeionization16.4 HERO ProcessReferences325338339342344358360PART 7 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS17 Frequently Asked Questions17.1 General17.1.1 What is Reverse Osmosis Used for?17.1.2 What is the Difference BetweenNanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis?17.1.3 What is Data Normalization?17.1.4 How Do SDI and Turbidity Correlate?325365365365365366366
CONTENTS17.1.5 Why Does the pH Drop from the ROFeed to the RO Permeate?17.2 Operational17.2.1 When is it Time to Cleanan RO Membrane?17.2.2 How Long Does it Take to Clean anRO System?17.2.3 What Temperature Cleaning SolutionShould Be Used to Clean Membranes?17.2.4 Can Extended Soak Time Compensate forCleaning at Lower Temperature, forExample, When the Heater isNot Working?17.2.5 Should the Low or High pH CleaningBe Conducted First?17.2.6 What Should Be Done if Cleaning DoesNot Return Performance to Baseline?17.2.7 If the Clean-In-Place Pump CannotProvide the Required Flow Rate, Canthe Pump Be Run at Higher Pressureto Compensate?17.2.8 What Should Be Done with Permeate thatis Generated During Membrane Cleaning?17.2.9 Why is the Permeate Conductivity HighAfter Cleaning the Membranes?17.2.10 Why is Chlorine Both Added and thenRemoved Prior to the RO?17.2.11 What Chemicals Can Be Used to DisinfectRO Membranes Directly?17.2.12 Why Does the RO Trip Off on LowSuction Pressure?17.2.13 Should RO Feed Water Be Heated?17.2.14 What Limits Recovery by an RO?17.2.15 How Do I Start up an RO?17.2.16 Do RO Membranes Need to BePreserved When Taken Off Line?17.2.17 Is there a Shelf Life for Reverse 69369370370371371372372374
xviCONTENTS17.2.18 What is the Difference Between Membranesthat Have Been Wet Tested and thosethat are Dry?37517.2.19 What is the Impact on the RO If thePretreatment System Fails, forExample, If the Softener Leaks Hardness? 37517.2.20 Can Different Types of MembranesBe Used in an RO Unit?37617.3 Equipment37717.3.1 What is the Footprint for an RO System?37717.3.2 What is a Variable Frequency DriveUsed for?37717.3.3 What is the Difference Between Pleated,String-Wound, and Melt-BlownCartridge Filters?37817.3.4 What is the Correct Way to Install Shimsand the Thrust Ring?37917.3.5 How should the Cleaning Pump Be Sized? 379References379Unit Equivalent and Conversions381Index383
PrefaceThe use of reverse osmosis (RO) technology has grown rapidlythrough the 1990's and early 2000's. The ability of RO to replaceor augment conventional ion exchange saves end users the needto store, handle, and dispose of large amounts of acid and caustic, making RO a "greener" technology. Additionally, costs formembranes have declined significantly since the introduction ofinterfacial composite membranes in the 1980's, adding to the attractiveness of RO. Membrane productivity and salt rejection haveboth increased, reducing the size of RO systems and minimizingthe amount of post treatment necessary to achieve desired productquality.Unfortunately, knowledge about RO has not kept pace with thegrowth in technology and use. Operators and others familiar withion exchange technology are often faced with an RO system withlittle or no training. This has resulted in poor performance of ROsystems and perpetuation of misconceptions about RO.Much of the current literature about RO includes lengthy discussions or focuses on a niche application that makes it difficult to findan answer to a practical question or problems associated with morecommon applications. Hence, my objective in writing this book isto bring clear, concise, and practical information about RO to endusers, applications engineers, and consultants. In essence, the bookis a referencebringing together knowledge from other references aswell as that gained through personal experience.The book focuses on brackish water industrial RO, but manyprinciples apply to seawater RO and process water as well.xvii
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AcknowledgementsMy enthusiasm for reverse osmosis (RO) began while workingwith my thesis advisor at UCLA, Professor Julius "Bud" Glater, apioneer who worked at UCLA with Sidney Loeb in the early daysof commercializing RO. Professor Glater was kind enough to extend a Research Assistantship to me, when my first choice was notavailable. That was fortunate for me, as membrane technology is agrowing field with great future potential. Professor Glatel's guidance and support were invaluable to me as a graduate student andhas continued to be throughout my career.My knowledge grew at Bend Research, Inc. under Harry Lonsdale,another membrane pioneer who was involved in the theoreticaland practical side of membranes since the early 1960's at Gulf General Atomic (predecessor of Fluid Systems, now Koch MembraneSystems),Alza, and later Bend Research, which he co-founded withRichard Baker. At Bend Research, I had the opportunity to developnovel membranes and membrane-based separation processes, including leading several membrane-based projects for water recovery and reuse aboard the International Space Station.My desire to write this book was fostered by Loraine Huchler,president of Mar-Tech Systems, which she founded in the mid1 9 9 0 ' and author of the book series, Operating Practices for Industrial Water Management. Loraine has provided both technicaland moral support.Thanks also go to Nalco Company, Naperville, IL, for supporting me in this endeavor. Individuals at Nalco who have providedtechnical and administrative support include: Ching Liang, AnneArza, Anders Hallsby, Beth Meyers, Carl Rossow, Alice Korneffel,and Kevin OLeary. Nalco-Crossbow LLC personnel who have provided support include Mark Sadus (contributor to Chapter 6), ScottWatkins, Mike Antenore, Jason Fues, and Dave Weygandt.xix
xxACKNOWLEDGEMENTSValuable technica1 support has been provided by JuliusGlater-Professor Emeritus UCLA; Mark Wilf of Tetratech; RajindarSingh-Consultant; Madalyn Epple of Toray Membrane USA; ScottBeardsley, Craig Granlund, of Dow Water and Process Solutions;Jonathan Wood and John Yen of Siemens Water TechnologiesIonpure Products; Bruce Tait of Layne Christensen; Jean Gucciardiof MarTech Systems; Rick Ide of AdEdge Technologies; and LisaFitzgerald of ITT-Goulds Pumps.I would like to thank my graphic artist, Diana Szustowski, forher excellent and tireless efforts.Finally, I would like to thank Paul Szustowski and Irma Kucerafor their support.
1FUNDAMENTALS
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1Introduction and Historyof Development1.1 IntroductionReverse Osmosis (RO) is a membrane-based demineralizationtechnique used to separate dissolved solids, such as ions, fromsolution (most applications involve water-based solutions, which isthe focus of this work). Membranes in general act as perm-selectivebarriers, barriers that allow some species (such as water) to selectivelypermeate through them while selectively retaining other dissolvedspecies (such as ions). Figure 1.1 shows how RO perm-selectivitycompares to many other membrane-based and conventional filtrationtechniques. As shown in the figure, RO offers the finest filtration currently available, rejecting most dissolved solids as well as suspendedsolids. (Note that although RO membranes will remove suspendedsolids, these solids, if present in RO feed water, will collect on themembrane surface and foul the membrane. See Chapters 3.7 and 7formore discussion on membrane fouling).1.1.1 Uses of Reverse OsmosisReverse osmosis can be used to either purify water or to concentrateand recover dissolved solids in the feed water (known as "dewatering"). The most common application of RO is to replace ion exchange,including sodium softening, to purify water for use as boiler makeup to low- to medium-pressure boilers, as the product quality froman RO can directly meet the boiler make-up requirements for thesepressures. For higher-pressure boilers and steam generators, RO isused in conjunction with ion exchange, usually as a pretreatment toa two-bed or mixed-bed ion exchange system. The use of RO prior toion exchange can significantly reduce the frequency of resin regenerations, and hence, drastically reduce the amount of acid, caustic, andregeneration waste that must be handled and stored. In some cases,a secondary RO unit can be used in place of ion exchange to furtherpurify product water from an RO unit (see Chapter 5.3).Effluent from3
FUNDAMENTALS4Figure 1.1 ”Filtration Spectrum” comparing the rejection capabilities of reverseosmosis with other membrane technologies and with the separation afforded byconventional filtration.the second RO may be used directly or is sometimes polished withmixed-bed ion exchange or continuous electrodeionizationto achieveeven higher product water purity (see Chapter 16.3).Other common applications of RO include:1. Desalination of seawater and brackish water for potable2.3.4.5.6.7.8.use. This is very common in coastal areas and.theMiddleEast where supply of fresh water is scarce.Generation of ultrapure water for the microelectronicsindustry.Generation of high-purity water for pharmaceuticals.Generation of process water for beverages (fruit juices,bottled water, beer).Processing of dairy products.Concentration of corn sweeteners.Waste treatment for the recovery of process materialssuch as metals for the metal finishing industries, anddyes used in the manufacture of textiles.Water reclamation of municipal and industrial wastewaters.
INTRODUCTIONAND HISTORYOF DEVELOPMENT51.1.2 History of Reverse Osmo
1.1.3 Recent Advances in RO Membrane Technology 9 1.1.4 Future Advancements 12 References 12 . 2 . Reverse Osmosis Principles 2.1 Osmosis 2.2 Reverse Osmosis 2.3 Dead-End Filtration 2.4 Cross-Flow Filtration 3 Basic Terms and Definitions 3.1 3.2 Recovery 3.3 Rejection 3.4 Flux 3.5 Concentration Polar
The bond graph model of reverse osmosis is given in Section 3. The last section presents the diagnosis of the reverse osmosis desalination unit. 2. Diagnosis by proportional observer using the bond graph model The observer provides an estimate of the system state
Normally, the reverse osmosis membrane is replaced during an annual filter change. However, if at any time you notice a reduction in water production or an unpleasant taste in the reverse osmosis water, it could be time to replace the the typical 5-stage RO system. membrane. Nimbus recommends replacing the membrane when TDS reduction falls .
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A Practical Guide to Reverse VAT 1. Contents 2. What is Reverse VAT? 3. Will Reverse VAT affect your business? 4. What is an End User? 5. Commercial End Users 6. Domestic End Users 7. When will Reverse VAT begin? 8. The Current VAT System 9. The New Reverse VAT System 10. Construction services subject to Reverse VAT 11. What else does Reverse VAT apply to? 12. Services NOT subject to .
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o (i) the same o (ii) about twice o (iii) about three times o (iv) about six times 12. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle, shrivels because . o (i) it gains water due to osmosis. o (ii) it loses water due to reverse osmosis. o (iii) it gains water due to reverse osmosis.
Four years later, the international standard ISO 14001:1996 was adopted. After eight years, the standard was updated with ISO 14001:2004 and re-viewed in 2015 [ISO 2015; Şahin 2014]. The number .
