Chapter 2 - A Historical Review Of Efforts To Reduce .
Chapter 2A Historical Review of Efforts to ReduceSmoking in the United StatesIntroduction29Early Events 29The Rise of the Cigarette 30Popularity and Protest 30The Attraction of Cigarettes 34Women and Cigarettes 36Winds of Change 37Medical Warnings38Public Dissemination 38Toward a Medical Consensus 3940Turning Point: The Surgeon General’s ReportA Stubborn Norm 40Economic and Social Impedance 41Delayed Effects and Delayed Actions 41From Disease Treatment to Risk Management42The Diverse Momentum of the Movement to Reduce SmokingSupport From Business 43The Attack on Advertising 45Toward a National Policy to Reduce SmokingFrom Antismoking to Nonsmokers’ Rights4546Regulations, Legislation, and Lobbying for Nonsmokers 46ETS: From Annoyance to Carcinogen 47The Impact of the Movement to Reduce SmokingConclusions51References 524843
Surgeon General's Report28Chapter 2
Reducing Tobacco UseIntroductionLike many other social phenomena, the use oftobacco has created a tapestry of themes, motivations,and social forces, woven together with a complexitythat has begun to capture the interest of social histori ans (Brandt 1990; Burnham 1993; Klein 1993; Tate1999). Tobacco has economic, social, and politicalreverberations and is intimately tied to collective im ages and attitudes. Nonetheless, some simplificationis possible: the history of tobacco use can be thoughtof as the conflict between tobacco as an agent of eco nomic gain and tobacco as an agent of human harm.An exhaustive history would not be content with sucha simple contrast, but it serves the purpose of this chap ter. The chief barrier to reducing tobacco use—the pathof most resistance—is a powerful industry whoseefforts to promote tobacco have continued to shapepublic opinion and social norms. Against this back ground, the chapter considers the underlying forcesthat have motivated the movement to reduce smok ing. Many recent events that are of critical historicalimportance for nonsmoking are considered in othersegments of the report (e.g., social advocacy actions[Chapter 7]; taxation-based initiatives in states [Chap ter 7]; Food and Drug Administration regulations re garding minors as the target of tobacco advertising[Chapter 5]; and proposed national legislation, settle ment and attempted settlement of various lawsuitsagainst the tobacco companies, and criminal proceed ings against tobacco companies [Chapter 5]). As notedin Chapter 1, some of the most dynamic changes in thehistory of smoking control efforts are currently takingplace, and we are not sufficiently distanced from theseevents to evaluate them fully. This chapter will con sider, rather, the changing thematic content—religious,hygienic, medical, and social—of the movement toreduce smoking that has presaged the current events.Early EventsIn North America, the history of tobacco use pre cedes written records. After American Indians intro duced tobacco to the European colonists, tobacco wastransported from the colonies to Europe, where itquickly became a widely used consumer item. Just asquickly, however, the use of tobacco became contro versial. Critics of the day attacked tobacco use asmorally irresponsible, extravagant, and a habit ofpeople of base condition (Best 1979). In England, KingJames I published an antitobacco tract in 1604 that,among other things, offered an early critique of sec ondhand smoke: the royal author expressed his con cerns that a husband who smoked might “reducethereby his delicate, wholesome, and cleane complex ioned wife to that extremitie, that either shee must alsocorrupt her sweete breath therewith, or else resolve tolive in a perpetuall stinking torment” (quoted inApperson 1916, p. 206). In many countries of north ern Europe, tobacco use was criminalized (Best 1979).Part of the objection in England and elsewhere wasthat trading gold to Spain for tobacco—the best tobaccocame from Spain’s colonies—was dangerous to thestate economy. But with the English colonization ofVirginia and the growing need in England, and else where in Europe, for more state revenue, governmentsturned their policies around, despite continued moralobjections to tobacco use. King James I himself setaside his previous objections and sought ways for thecrown to profit from the tobacco trade (Morgan 1975;Best 1979).Of all the novel consumer goods the New Worldmade available to the Old World, “tobacco enjoyed themost rapid diffusion” (Shammas 1990, p. 80) amongpeople of different income levels, who bought it ona fairly regular basis. Closer to the source, massconsumption was even more pronounced: in theAmerican colonies during the 18th century, yearly con sumption averaged between 2 and 5 pounds per capita(Shammas 1990). When used medicinally, tobacco wasfavorably regarded; but in its widespread use for plea sure, “it was considered harmful and faintly immoral”(Morgan 1975, p. 91; see also Stewart 1967).Historical Review29
Surgeon General's ReportAlthough that reputation for immorality neverentirely vanished, by 1776, tobacco was not only a val ued consumer good but also the economic foundationof the colonies’ independence movement. “KingTobacco Diplomacy” was a central element in gainingFrench support for the struggling colonies; tobacco,one historian reports, “helped to buy American inde pendence” (Morgan 1975, p. 6). Thomas Jeffersonthought well enough of tobacco to propose that itsleaves be carved into the pillars in one of the Capitolrotundas in Washington (U.S. House of Representa tives 1969).The Rise of the CigaretteBefore the 20th century, tobacco was used pre dominantly for chewing, pipe smoking, inhaling (assnuff), and cigar smoking. The cigarette was an inno vation that appeared sometime early in the 19th cen tury. The term “cigarette” first made its appearancein English in the 1840s (Apperson 1916). For reasonsincluding cost and ease of use (discussed later in thischapter), the product quickly caught on among tobaccousers. In the United States, cigarette smoking increasedenough during the Civil War for cigarettes to becomesubject to federal tax in 1864 (Tennant 1950). But itwas not until its manufacture was mechanized that thecigarette became a major tobacco product.James Albert Bonsack patented a cigarette roll ing machine in 1881 that, by the late 1880s, producedcigarettes at 40 times the rate of a skilled hand worker(Tennant 1950; Chandler 1977). The mechanization ofcigarette manufacture, like that of a number of otherproducts in the late 19th century (such as preparedcereals, photographic film, matches, flour, and cannedfood products such as soup), precipitated a marketingrevolution. Industries that developed “continuousprocess” production (Chandler 1977, p. 249) couldincrease unit production without increasing produc tion costs—the main production problem of the day.The cigarette industry, like these others, could now pro duce almost unlimited quantities of product at mini mal cost per additional unit. When James BuchananDuke installed two Bonsack machines in 1884 andarranged the next year an advantageous leasing ar rangement with Bonsack, his cigarette output soared.Within a decade, his unit cost of producing cigarettesdropped to one-sixth of what it had been (Chandler1977). In 1890, following a series of price wars madefeasible by these cost savings, Duke merged withseveral competitors to form The American TobaccoCompany. With the production problem solved andcompetition reduced, the focus of business thinking30Chapter 2shifted to marketing. At a time when national adver tising of many products was in its infancy, The Ameri can Tobacco Company was innovative and expansivein its promotional efforts (U.S. Department of Healthand Human Services [USDHHS] 1994).Popularity and ProtestThe growing popularity of cigarette smokingcoincided with the years of populist health reform inthe 19th century. Antitobaccoism was a standard fea ture of various writings on personal health, which heldthat any “stimulant” was unhealthy (Nissenbaum1980). Some of these health beliefs were tied to a reli gious orientation. Ellen Gould Harmon White, theprophetess who founded the Seventh-day Adventists,spoke out strongly against tobacco. In 1848, her firstvision concerning healthful living taught her the reli gious duty of abstaining from tobacco, tea, and coffee.She attacked these products for the money squanderedon them and for their dangers to health. White mayhave picked up these views from Captain Joseph Bates,a Millerite (follower of William Miller, whosemillenarian group believed that the Second Comingof Christ would occur in 1843). Not until 1855, how ever, did tobacco abstention become a larger themeamong the Adventists. In that year, the group’sReview and Herald printed two lead articles attacking“the filthy, health-destroying, God-dishonoringpractice of using tobacco” (quoted in Numbers 1976,p. 40).This protest was an integral part of the complexantitobacco crusading at the time. In addition to thereligious motif, there was the considerable influenceof the hygiene movement, which branded “tobacco ism” a disease, tobacco a poison (Burnham 1989, p. 6),and dubbed cigarettes “coffin nails” (Tate 1999, p. 24).
Reducing Tobacco UseSpearheaded by the American Anti-Tobacco Society,which was founded in 1849, antitobacco critics foundtobacco a cause of ailments ranging from insanity tocancer. During this time, cigarettes were often con sidered narcotics because they seemed to have addict ing qualities (Tate 1999). This litany of physiologicalills ascribed to tobacco use did not prove to have thesocial power of the announcement, a century later, thatnumerous medical studies had found a direct link be tween smoking and specific diseases that, as was un derstood only in that later century, often took decadesto manifest themselves. Between 1857 and 1872, GeorgeTrask published the Anti-Tobacco Journal in Fitchburg,Massachusetts, attacking the filth (especially of chew ing tobacco), the dangers to health, and the costlinessof tobacco (Tennant 1971). Early 19th century popularhealth movements tended to ally themselves with“nature” and “natural” remedies in opposition to pro fessional medicine; by the late 19th century, healthmovements were more likely to take medical profes sionals as their spokesmen (Burnham 1987).One such professional was Dr. John HarveyKellogg, Seventh-day Adventist and director of thefamous Adventist-founded Battle Creek (Michigan)Sanitarium, whose main concern was improving diet.Kellogg argued that tobacco was a principal cause ofheart disease and other illnesses and that it adverselyaffected both judgment and morals (Schwarz 1970).Along with Ellen Gould Harmon White and her hus band, a Millerite preacher, Kellogg organized theAmerican Health and Temperance Association in 1878,which opposed the use of alcohol, tea, coffee, andtobacco. Later, Kellogg served as president of theMichigan Anti-Cigarette Society and, after World War I,as a member of the Committee of Fifty to Study theTobacco Problem.Other organizational efforts directed specificallyat cigarettes began in the last two decades of the 19thcentury. These efforts were generally directed at sav ing boys and young men from the dangers of cigarettesmoking. In New York City, the president of the boardof education, a smoker himself, set up the ConsolidatedAnti-Cigarette League and won the pledges of 25,000schoolboys not to smoke until they turned 21 (Troyerand Markle 1983).The first to call for cigarette prohibition was theNational Woman’s Christian Temperance Union(WCTU) (Tate 1999). Led by Frances Willard, a friendof Harvey Kellogg, who was further inspired by herbrother’s death from smoking-related illnesses, theWCTU as early as 1875 made plans to instruct mem bers of its youth affiliate, the Juvenile Work, about thedangers of tobacco, as well as the hazards of alcohol.In 1883, the WCTU established the Department forOverthrow of Tobacco Habit, which was renamed theDepartment of Narcotics in 1885 (Lander 1885; Tate1999).The campaign against tobacco became a perma nent part of the WCTU. Reports from their annualmeetings documented the accomplishments of stateand local chapters in combating smoking. In 1884, thesuperintendent of the Department for Overthrow ofTobacco Habit acknowledged the difficulty of the taskbefore her: “With a spittoon in the pulpit and the vis ible trail of the vice in countless churches, with itsentrenchments bearing the seal of respectability, its for tifications so long impregnable will yield slowly andunwillingly to the mightiest opposing forces” (WCTU1884, p. v). She noted that tobacco was a habit costingpeople “more than the support of all [their] ministersof the gospel” or than the price of educating their chil dren; that it caused disease, “especially the loss of sight,paralysis, prostration, and scores of ailments hithertocredited to other sources”; and that it “lower[ed] thestandard of morality” (WCTU 1884, p. v).The WCTU was one group that pressed withsome success for legislation to prohibit the sale oftobacco to minors.1 By 1890, such laws had been passedin 23 states. Connecticut and New York enacted pen alties for both the underaged smoker and the merchantwho sold to the minor (WCTU 1890). In New York,the strengthened law arose out of WCTU lobbying.“We found so many evasions of the law as it stood,”the WCTU reported at its annual meeting in 1890, “thatwe decided our only way to save the boys was toamend the law, so as to punish the boy who was foundusing tobacco in any public place, street or resort”(WCTU 1890, p. 185). The Department of Narcoticsorganized a letter-writing campaign that mobilizedwomen, educators, and ministers (p. 185). By 1897,the Department of Narcotics report could proudlyclaim, “everything points to the death of the little cof fin nail, if our women will only continue faithful”(WCTU 1897, p. 343).1The laws prohibiting sales to minors began in New Jerseyand Washington as early as 1883, Nebraska in 1885, andMaryland in 1886. By 1940, all states except Texas hadlaws of this sort on the books (Gottsegen 1940). By 1964,Texas had joined the list, but Louisiana and Wisconsin hadrepealed their laws as unenforceable (USDHHS 1989).The legality of the laws was confirmed by the UnitedStates Supreme Court (Austin v. Tennessee, 179 U.S. 343, 21S. Ct. 132 [1900]), and a Federal Court of Appeals ruled in1937 to uphold the authority of local jurisdictions to banvending machine sales of cigarettes in the effort to protectminors (USDHHS 1989).Historical Review31
Surgeon General's ReportAnnouncements of tobacco’s death were prema ture, but cigarette sales declined in the last years ofthe 19th century. Most likely, the decline was precipi tated by the “Plug War,” in which The AmericanTobacco Company bought several plug tobacco pro ducers and sharply cut prices, attracting cigarette us ers back to other tobacco products. Moreover, as thecountry came out of the depression of the 1890s, cigarsmokers who had shifted to the cheaper cigarettesmoved back to their preferred smoke (Sobel 1978). Butthe campaign against the cigarette certainly had a leg islative impact. Cigarettes were prohibited for bothadults and minors by law—if only temporarily—inNorth Dakota in 1895, Iowa in 1896, Tennessee in 1897,and Oklahoma in 1901. Eleven states had some gen eral anticigarette legislation by 1901, and almost allstate legislatures had considered curbs on cigarettesales (Outlook 1901).In 1899, Lucy Page Gaston, a WCTU activist, setup the Chicago Anti-Cigarette League (changed to theNational Anti-Cigarette League in 1901 and to the AntiCigarette League of America in 1911). The leaguefocused on the dangers of cigarettes to boys. Gastonsponsored frequent rallies, at which a chorus of youngnonsmoking men provided the music (Duis 1983; Tate1999). One of the innovations of Gaston’s crusade wasthe establishment of a smoking cessation clinic in Chi cago (Troyer and Markle 1983). Gaston, whose longcareer against tobacco would culminate with her bidfor the Republican presidential nomination in 1920 onan antitobacco platform (New York Times 1920), workedtirelessly lobbying for antitobacco legislation.Such legislation continued to pass, particularlyin midwestern and some western states—Indiana,Nebraska, and Wisconsin in 1905; Arkansas in 1907;and Kansas, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Washing ton in 1909. But evasion of the laws was apparentlyeasy. Cigarette “makings” (e.g., cigarette papers andcigarette tobacco) were sold even if cigarettes were not,and some retailers sold matches for a higher-than usual price and gave away cigarettes with them(Warfield 1930; Sobel 1978). Other retailers and smok ers evaded the law through a product wrapped in atobacco leaf rather than paper (New York Times 1905).The WCTU was not alone in its efforts. Severalbusinesses and prominent individuals were outspo ken in the crusade against tobacco use, some going sofar as to support Gaston’s proposed (and defeated)20th amendment to the Constitution that would haveoutlawed the manufacture and shipment of tobaccoproducts (Junod 1997). Henry Ford attacked the habitof cigarette smoking and enlisted Thomas Edison toinvestigate its dangers (Brandt 1990). According to32Chapter 2Harper’s Weekly (1910), many railroads and other firmswould not hire smokers. Sears, Roebuck and Com pany and Montgomery Ward Holding Corporationrefused to employ smokers (Porter 1947–48). The NonSmokers’ Protective League of America was estab lished in 1911 with a distinguished board of directors,including Harvey W. Wiley, chief chemist of the U.S.Department of Agriculture and father of the (1906)Pure Food and Drug Act; James Roscoe Day, chancel lor of Syracuse University; and David Starr Jordan,president of Stanford University (New York Times1911). Dr. Charles G. Pease, a physician and dentist,was the leader of this group. “Almost single-handed,”according to a New York Times report (1928, p. 7), Peasewon a 1909 prohibition against smoking in the sub ways. In 1917, he opposed sending tobacco to Ameri can soldiers in Europe.But the New York Times reported in 1928 that “littlehas been heard from Dr. Pease since” (p. 7). Indeed,the anticigarette movement by then was waning.Cigarette prohibition was repealed in Indiana in1909; Washington in 1911; Minnesota in 1913; Okla homa and Wisconsin in 1915; South Dakota in 1917;Nebraska in 1919; Arkansas, Idaho, Iowa, and Tennes see in 1921; Utah in 1923; North Dakota in 1925; andKansas in 1927 (Gottsegen 1940). Legislatures in otherstates—including Lucy Page Gaston’s home state ofIllinois—considered but did not enact anticigarette bills(Duis 1983). Even the WCTU, at the time judged “themost powerful and the most formidable organizationwhich is actively opposing the use of tobacco” (Brown1920, p. 447), in 1919 voted against supporting tobaccoprohibition. The organization pledged to keep to aneducational rather than a legislative campaign (NewYork Times 1919).A major weapon against the tobacco prohibitionmovement was the American soldier. Cigarettes hadbeen popular among the armed forces since the CivilWar. By 1918, during World War I, cigarettes were partof the army’s daily ration (Dillow 1981); soldiers usedcigarettes for relief during the extremes of tedium andtension characteristic of the profession. General JohnJoseph Pershing himself is supposed to have said, “Youask me what we need to win this war. I answertobacco, as much as bullets” (quoted in Sobel 1978,p. 84). “The soldiers, we are told, must have theirtobacco,” a newspaper editorialized in 1915: “The ciga rette is the handiest form in which this can be sent”(Lynn [Mass.] Evening News 1915, p. 4). Even the YoungMen’s Christian Association altered its antitobaccostance and, along with the International Red Cross andother charitable and patriotic organizations, sent ciga rettes off to the soldiers in the field (Schudson 1984).
Reducing Tobacco UseThis outspoken, soldier-directed sentiment in
ern Europe, tobacco use was criminalized (Best 1979). Part of the objection in England and elsewhere was that trading gold to Spain for tobacco—the best tobacco . came from Spain’s colonies—was dangerous to the state economy. But with the English colonization of Virginia an
Part One: Heir of Ash Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 .
TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD. Contents Dedication Epigraph Part One Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Part Two Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18. Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26
DEDICATION PART ONE Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 PART TWO Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 .
About the husband’s secret. Dedication Epigraph Pandora Monday Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Tuesday Chapter Six Chapter Seven. Chapter Eight Chapter Nine Chapter Ten Chapter Eleven Chapter Twelve Chapter Thirteen Chapter Fourteen Chapter Fifteen Chapter Sixteen Chapter Seventeen Chapter Eighteen
18.4 35 18.5 35 I Solutions to Applying the Concepts Questions II Answers to End-of-chapter Conceptual Questions Chapter 1 37 Chapter 2 38 Chapter 3 39 Chapter 4 40 Chapter 5 43 Chapter 6 45 Chapter 7 46 Chapter 8 47 Chapter 9 50 Chapter 10 52 Chapter 11 55 Chapter 12 56 Chapter 13 57 Chapter 14 61 Chapter 15 62 Chapter 16 63 Chapter 17 65 .
HUNTER. Special thanks to Kate Cary. Contents Cover Title Page Prologue Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter
Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 . Within was a room as familiar to her as her home back in Oparium. A large desk was situated i
The Hunger Games Book 2 Suzanne Collins Table of Contents PART 1 – THE SPARK Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8. Chapter 9 PART 2 – THE QUELL Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapt
