The Impact Of Domestic Violence On Children: A Literature .

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The Impact of Domestic Violence onChildren: A Literature ReviewReport prepared by:The Australian Domestic & FamilyViolence ClearinghouseThe University of New South WalesFor:The Benevolent Society1 August 2011

The Impact of Domestic Violence onChildren: A Literature ReviewFunded by the Department of Family andCommunity Services, Office For Women’s PolicyFor:The Benevolent Society1 August 2011Authorised Contact:Rachel BrooksConsulting and Contracts Officer,Grants Management OfficeDivision of ResearchThe University of New South WalesUNSW SYDNEY NSW 2052T: 61 2 9385 3055F: 61 2 9385 7238E: rachel.brooks@unsw.edu.auW: www.unsw.edu.auAny use of this Report, in part or in its entirety, or use of th e names The University of New South Wales, UNSW, the name of any unit ofThe University or the name of the Consultant, in direct o r in indir ect advertising or pu blicity, is forb idden, without the pri or approval ofUNSW.

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.Table of ContentsKey Points . 1Impacts of domestic and family violence on children . 1Defining domestic violence . 2Learning from the literature: children affected by domestic violence . 2Defining the experience of children affected by domestic violence . 2How many children are affected by domestic violence in Australia?. 3How are children affected by domestic violence? . 4How age, gender, and ethnicity are related to children’s experiences of domestic violence . 5Coping, recovery and resiliency . 6Learning from the Australian experience: the Family Law evaluations . 7Parenting arrangements and shared care of children post separation. 7When shared care does not work: violence and conflict in separating families . 8Shared care does not work for infants in any circumstances . 8How common is shared care in families with high parental conflict and domestic violence? . 8How domestic violence and high parental conflict affects children in shared care . 9Why are children with separating parents who are experiencing high conflict and domesticviolence in shared care arrangements? . 10Good practice in responding to the needs of children and family. 11Organisational responses: Building a foundation to identify and respond. 11How practitioners can respond to children . 14How practitioners can respond to mothers . 15Further research . 16Conclusion . 17References . 20i

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.The impact of Domestic Violence on Children:A literature ReviewMegan SetyKey Points More than one million Australian children are affected by domestic violence. Children experience serious emotional, psychological, social, behavioural anddevelopmental consequences as a result of experiencing violence. Infants and youngchildren are especially at risk. Perpetrators often attack the mother-child relationship and use children in committingviolence, such as threats to harm the children. Children continue to be at risk from the effects of violence during and after parents’separation. Children experience significant risks in shared parenting arrangements when thearrangement involves substantial shared time with the violent parent. The evidence shows that false allegations of domestic violence and child abuse arerare. There is, however, evidence to suggest that perpetrators often deny or minimisetheir use of violence. All disclosures of violence should be taken seriously andinvestigated. Children and mothers can cope with and recover from the effects of violence.Services and programs should build on their resiliency and coping strategies. Organisations should increase collaboration across sectors, use standardisedscreening and risk assessment tools, train staff in domestic violence issues, and referto or offer specialised services. Workers should support children in disclosing their experiences and ensure children’svoices are considered in parenting decisions. Specialised counselling and programs should be offered to children and mothers,with a particular emphasis on rebuilding the mother-child relationship.Impacts of domestic and family violence on childrenMore than one million Australian children are affected by domestic violence, according to thePersonal Safety Surve y (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006). More than two decades ofinternational research definitively shows that infants, children and adolescents experienceserious negative psychological, emotional, social, and developmental impacts to their wellbeing from the traumatic ongoing experiences of domestic violence. A number of recentAustralia studies examining the family law system have brought attention to the experiencesof children affected by violence and an urgent call to improving policies and practices toprotect and support children and victimised caregivers. Research has shown that childrenand victimised caregivers can cope and recover, particularly when specialised services areoffered. Specialised programs and counselling models are rapidly being developed andimplemented, often with a growing focus of attending to the mother-child relationship.1

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.This review examines the literature in general and the recent Australia studies of family lawlegislation to explore the impacts on children who are affected by domestic violence, andprovides recommendations for generalist social service practitioners working with thesefamilies.Defining domestic violenceThere are many definitions of domestic violence based on national and state legislation andpolicies. For this review, domestic violence (also referred to as intimate partner violence) isdefined as:.an abuse of power perpetrated mainly (but not only) by men against women both inrelationships and after separation. It occurs when one partner attempts physically orpsychologically to do minate and control the other. Themost commonlyacknowledged forms are physical and sexua l violence, threats and intim idation,emotional and social abuse and economic deprivation.For many indigenous peoplethe term family violence is preferr ed as it encompasses all form s of violen ce inintimate, family and ot her relationships of m utual obligation and support (AustralianLaw Reform Commission and New South Wales Law Reform Commission 2010, p.188)While it is essential to acknowledge that women do perpetrate violence against men, thereare significant differences in the nature and context of this violence when compared to maleviolence against women. Mothers have been found to experience higher rates of violence bythe child’s other parent (Bagshaw et al. 2010; Kaspiew et al. 2009b), and women reportexperiencing more severe abuse and threats in the context of intimidation and fear, includingthreats of harm to the children or life threatening acts (Bagshaw et al. 2011). Men do notreport the same level of violence or feelings of fear or powerlessness (Bagshaw et al. 2010).As domestic violence is most often perpetrated by men against their female partners(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006; Mouzos & Makkai 2004), and women are more likelyto experience more severe ongoing partner violence (Bagshaw et al. 2010; Bagshaw et al.2011), this review examines domestic violence and the impact on children focussing on maleviolence perpetrated against mothers.Learning from the literature: children affected by domestic violenceDefining the experience of children affected by domestic violenceAcross the literature, various terms are used to identify children’s experiences of domesticviolence including: witnessing violence; exposed to viole nce; experiencing direct abuse,hearing or seeing violence; and living with domestic violence. Use of these terms suggests adefinition can be easily identified by the physical presence of the child during the violence oras a direct target of violence. Hester (2010) argues that the use of the term exposed onlytells half the story, implying that the child is simply present as domestic violence occurs andthis places an expectation, often on mothers as the most common victim of domesticviolence, to remove the child from the situation. Humphreys et al. (2008) and Edleson (1999)in their literature reviews discuss many more ways in which children might experiencedomestic violence beyond witnessing, including being accidentally hurt, attempting tointervene, violence in utero and as the victim of threats or child abduction.2

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.It is difficult in the research and theoretical understanding to distinguish between the impactsof witnessing versus directly experiencing abuse because the patterns of violence towardschildren and their mothers are complex and intertwined (Edleson 1999; Humphreys,Houghton & Ellis 2008; Laing 2010). Respondents in Bagshaw et al.’s (2010) study reportedthat domestic violence and child abuse were indistinguishable. This may be a moot point, asKitzmann et al. (2003) noted in their review of 118 studies, that children who witnessviolence experience the same level of negative psychosocial outcomes as children whodirectly experience physical abuse.Humphreys (2007) states that the term affected by encompasses all forms or pathways inwhich children may be impacted by violence. This term also allows for the reality that allchildren will be affected by the presence of domestic violence in their family, regardless ofthe nature of the violence.The experiences of children affected by violence are much more extensive and ongoing thansimply witnessing or directly experiencing violence, and specifically include the perpetrator’suse of a child in perpetrating violence towards a mother, by using threats or actual violencetowards the child as a way to exert further control (Edleson 1999; Hester 2010; Humphreys,Houghton & Ellis 2008; Lapierre 2010). As part of their violent strategies, men may oftentarget and undermine their partner’s or ex-partner’s mothering and mother-child relationships(Hester 2010; Humphreys, Houghton & Ellis 2008; Humphreys et al. 2006; Lapierre 2010).For mothers, this increases a sense of responsibility and creates feelings of helplessnessaround protecting their children (Lapierre 2010). This is consistent with the findings ofBagshaw et al. (2011) who reported that many women experienced ongoing threats ofviolence post-separation and an inability to provide protection for their children when alonewith the violent parent.How many children are affected by domestic violence in Australia?Statistics about the number of Australian children affected by domestic violence are limited.However, available data shows a widespread and severe problem that has affected morethan one million Australian children by 2005 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006). TheAustralian Bureau of Statistics Personal Safety Survey, Australia found that of people whohad experienced violence by a former partner, 822,500 had children in their care during therelationship and 239,800 women reported violence by their former partner during theirpregnancy (p. 11). Of people who reported experiences of violence by a current partner,111,700 had children in their care during the relationship and 18,300 women reportedviolence by their current partner during their pregnancy (2006, p. 11).More than half of women who report an experience of partner violence in their lifetime, willbe caring for their children during the violent relationship (Australian Bureau of Statistics2006). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women are significantly more likely toexperience family violence in their lifetime (Mouzos & Makkai 2004) and consequentlyIndigenous children are more likely to be affected by domestic violence.Domestic violence has also been a reason for increasing child protection notifications, due tochanges in mandatory reporting that acknowledge the significant negative impacts onchildren who are affected by domestic violence. Child protection notifications have almostdoubled between 2001-2002 and 2005-2006 from 137,938 to 266,745 (Potito et al. 2009).Wundersitz (2010) has noted similar patterns among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderchildren and families.When asked, children also identify their own experiences with domestic violence. In theNational Crime Prevention Survey, almost one quarter of Australian youth reportedwitnessing physical domestic violence against their mother (Indermaur 2001). A more recent3

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.study had similar findings, with one quarter of children reporting they had been frightenedwhen they witnessed their father being violent towards their mother (Bagshaw 2007).How are children affected by domestic violence?Several extensive reviews of published research have found that children who are affectedby domestic violence experience significant negative impacts to their physical,psychological, emotional, social, behavioural, developmental and cognitive well-being andfunctioning (Carpenter & Stacks 2009; Edleson 1999; Humphreys, Houghton & Ellis 2008;Humphreys & Mullender 1999; Kitzmann et al. 2003; Laing 2000; McIntosh 2003; Wolfe etal. 2003).Wolfe et al.’s (2003) meta-analysis found that 40 of 41 studies demonstrated a significantnegative effect on children’s behavioural and emotional outcomes when affected byviolence. Kitzman et al. (2003) provided a more in-depth analysis by examining whichoutcomes were more severely affected. However, the findings indicated that childrenexperienced negative impacts to the same degree for internalised behaviours, externalisedbehaviours, social problems and academic problems (Kitzmann et al. 2003). This might beexplained by the fact that children are likely to experience multiple and interrelated negativeimpacts, limiting the ability of researchers to isolate and study individual negative outcomes.In Edleson’s (1999) review of 31 studies, the majority of studies identified behavioural andemotional problems. These studies indicated children were more likely to experienceexternalised behaviour problems, including aggression, antisocial behaviour, and socialincompetence (Edleson 1999). Internalised problems accounted for emotional andpsychological impacts including anxiety, depression, trauma symptoms, and problems withtemperament (Edleson 1999). Reviews have noted some findings of academic or cognitiveimpacts but with conflicting evidence (Edleson 1999; Humphreys & Mullender 1999; Laing2000).Laing’s (2000) review also noted that while many children will present with symptoms that donot always meet a post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis, many will experienceunwanted remembering of traumatic events, traumatic avoidance and traumatic arousalsymptoms. Infants may experience symptoms of PTSD or trauma through eating problems,sleep disturbances, heightened irritability and crying, and loss of developmental skills(Carpenter & Stacks 2009). In a study by Zerk et al. (2009) of 60 children between the agesof one and six years old, the majority of children showed clinical levels of internalising andexternalising behaviour problems, depression, anxiety, high levels of general distress andPTSD symptoms. PTSD symptoms included hyperactivity, new fears and aggressions, sleepdisturbances, poor concentration, and significant anxiety when separated from theircaregiver (Zerk, Mertin & Proeve 2009).In their own words, children most often report feelings of sadness, confusion, fear and anger(Bagshaw 2007). In their review of studies of children’s perspectives, Humphreys et al.(2008) noted that children often discuss the emotional, physical, and sometimes sexualabuse experienced by themselves and their families, as well as significant feelings of fear oftheir violent fathers. Research continues to indicate that children affected by violence aremore likely to experience higher rates of depression and anxiety, trauma symptoms andbehavioural and cognitive problems (Humphreys, Houghton & Ellis 2008; McIntosh 2003;Zerk, Mertin & Proeve 2009).Domestic violence and child abuse, sexual assault, maltreatment and other forms ofvictimisation significantly co-occur, putting children affected by domestic violence at greaterrisk of experiencing direct physical abuse and sexual assault (Edleson 1999; Hamby et al.2010; Humphreys, Houghton & Ellis 2008; Potito et al. 2009). In a study looking at lifetime4

Project Ref: RG113568Australian Domestic and Family Violence ClearinghouseChildren affected by domestic violence literature review for The Benevolent Society.experiences of witnessing partner violence among more than 4500 US children, more thanhalf of children had also been maltreated (physical abuse, psychological abuse, custodialinterference1 and sexual assault) (Hamby et al. 2010). For these children, the level ofmaltreatment was more severe than for children who had not witnessed partner violence. Ofyouth who were sexually assaulted by a known adult, more than 70% had witnessed partnerviolence (2010, p. 737). From the Australian National Crime Prevention Study, of the one inten young people who experienced physical violence from their male carer, 55% reporteddomestic violence in their home, more than double the average rate of 23% among youngpeople who did not report experiencing physical abuse (Flood & Fergus 2008, p. 11).Research and theories vary regarding the intergenerational transmission of violence. Floodand Pease (2006) in their review of the literature, conclude that witnessing or being thevictim of violence as a child has a direct impact on later perpetration of partner violence. Inparticular, boys affected by domestic violence are more likely to later perpetrate violenceagainst their female partners. The National Crime Preventi on Study also found the mostsignificant predictor of youth perpetration of partner violence was witnessing parentaldomestic violence (Indermaur 2001). However, Laing (2000) suggests th

There are many definitions of domestic violence based on national and state legislation and policies. For this review, domestic violence (also referred to as intimate partner violence) is defined as: .an abuse of power perpetr

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