ON THE FRONTIER - History.nasa.gov
ON THE FRONTIER
4Hugh L. Dryden
vI*aON THE FRONTIERFlight Research at Dryden,1946-1981Richard I? HallionThe NASA Histo7y SeriesScientific and Technical Information Branch1984National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, DC
One advantage of working in contemporary history is access to participants. During theresearch phase, the author conducted numerous interviews. Subsequently he submittedparts of the manuscript to persons who had participated in or closely observed the eventsdescribed. Readers were asked to point out errors of fact and questionable interpretationsand to provide supporting evidence. The author then made the changes he believedjustified. The opinions and conclusions set forth in this book are those of the author; noofficial of the agency necessarily endorses them.Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataHallion, Richard.On the frontier.(The NASA history series) (NASA SP ; 4303)Bibliography: p. 363Includes index.1. Dryden Flight Research Facility - History.I. Title. 11. Series. 111. Series: NASA SP ; 4303.TLb21.312.H341984629.1’07207948883-14136For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, DC 20402 (papercover)
Contents.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .PROLOGUE: A MOST EXOTIC PLACE .FOREWORDPageviiixxiI . EXPLORING THE SUPERSONIC FRONTIER: 1944- 1959 . . . . . . . . . . 11. Confronting the Speed of Sound: 1944- 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . 32. Pioneer Days at Muroc: 1948-1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233. Testing the Shapes of Planes to Come: 1950-1956 . . . . . . 414. Through Mach 2 and 3: 1951-1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635. Testing Service Aircraft: 1953- 1959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87I1. INTO SPACE: 1959-1981 .991016. The X-15 Era: 1959-1968 .7. Serving Gemini and Apollo: 1962- 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318. Prelude to Shuttle: The Lifting Bodies. 1962-1976 . . . . . 1471779. Mach 3 Again: 1966-1979 .10. A Center with Diversity: 1962-1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20111. A Center at the Crossroads: 1976- 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235APPENDIX A-Organization Charts. 1948- 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261APPENDIX B-Personnel Summary for FRC/DFRC, OtherOART/OAST Centers. and NASA as a Whole . 273APPENDIX C-HSFS/FRC/DFRC Technical Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 275APPENDIX %Authorized Funding for Research and ProgramManagement at FRCIDFRC. Other OART/OASTCenters. and NASA . . 2791 Program Flight Chronology. 1946- 1958 . . . . . 285APPENDIX E-HSFS/FRC/DFRCAPPENDIX F-X-277Research Aircraft. 1947- 1980V
ON T H E FRONTIERAPPENDIX G-Douglas D .558 Program Flight Chronology.1947-1956 .299. . . . 315APPENDIX I-X-3 Program Flight Chronology. 1954- 1956 . . . . . 317APPENDIX J-X-4 Program Flight Chronology. 1950-1953 . . . . . 319APPENDIX K-X-5 Program Flight Chronology. 1952- 1955 . . . . 323APPENDIX L-XF-92A Program Flight Chronology. 1953 . 327APPENDIX M-X- 15 Program Flight Chronology. 1959- 1968 . . . 329APPENDIX H-X-2 Program Flight Chronology. 1954- 1956APPENDIX N-Lifting Body Program Flight Chronology.1966-1975 .339APPENDIX 0-XB -70A Program Flight Chronology.1967-1969 .347APPENDIX P-YF- 12 Program Flight Chronology. 1969- 1978. 349APPENDIX QSpaceShuttle Orbiter Approach and LandingTests Program Flight Chronology. 1977 . . . . . . . . . . 357.A NOTE ON SOURCES .SOURCENOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .T HE AUTHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .APPENDIX R-Accident Statistics. 1954- 1975vi359361363377387
ForewordA stillness was on the desert. Daylight settled unhurriedly down thehilltops bordering the triangular valley. The indigo sky above and to thewest was pierced with the gleam of a solitary planet and the flicker of anoccasional second- or third-magnitude star.The valley bottom was an immense expanse of flatness. Miles ofmirror-smooth clay were marred by neither hummock nor furrow. Notree or bush could be seen on this seemingly endless waterless lake. Nosound from animal or bird punctuated the silence. Wild creatures foundlittle to attract them on the vast empty platter. It was one of nature’s quiethideaways, an outpost of serenity.There were intruders. On the western shore of this “lake,” figuresscurried around a strange assemblage. A small shark-sleek craft was beingattached to a much larger mother craft. The shark‘s midsection was bandedwith ice crystals; puffs of ashen vapor wafted upward and disappearedinto the clear sky. The juxtaposition of ancient geology and moderntechnology, curiously, seemed to fit.By the mid-twentieth century, the science of aeronautics had grown to substantial maturity. Aircraft were speeding faster and faster and threatening to outracetheir own sound. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had a trio oflaboratories to study thefundamental problems offiight. They had a wide variety oftest facilities and a cadre of bright, able, and dedicated scientists who had performed with remarkable success over the years surrounding the second World War.For the testing of very-high-speed aircraft, however, they needed a new laboratory:a laboratory in the sky.And so it was that the researchers came to Antelope Valley inCalifornia, a valley blessed with clear and uncrowded skies, a sparsepopulation, and Muroc Dry Lake, a natural aerodrome where runwaylength and direction were, for most practical purposes, unlimiting.On the shore of Muroc, NACA established its High-speed FlightStation and began its challenge of the unknown. The mysteries werenumerous and perplexing. The search for solutions was tedious, protracted, and often dangerous. The research methods placed men andmachines at the boundaries of understanding. On occasion, fine menwere lost at those boundaries in the pursuit of knowledge. Their sacrifices will be remembered.vii
ON THE FRONTIERAt the dawn of the Space Age, the researchers on the shore of thedry lake were already actively engaged in its planning. After NACAbecame NASA, their considerable contributions were of substantial significance in the evolution of America’s manned spaceflight program.This book is the story of those researchers and their efforts. RichardHallion has recorded the history of their flights and captured the spirit ofa remarkable and unique institution in the evolution of aerospace progress.He tells of the place, the projects, and, most important, the people. It is astory of men and machines, of success and failure, of time and circumstance.I had the pleasure of living some of the events recorded here. I takegreat personal satisfaction in those years, the projects in which I wasprivileged to participate, and the wonderful and able people I workedwith and whose friendship I cherish.October 1983.vi11Neil A. Armstrong
P*PAcknowledgmentsThis account of flight research at Hugh L. Dryden Flight ResearchCenter resulted from cooperation between the History Office of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department ofScience and Technology of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Airand Space Museum. It would have been impossible to undertake andcomplete this study without the support and assistance of a large numberof persons within NASA, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Departments of Aerospace Engineering and History of the University ofMaryland. My debt to all of them is great.I owe special gratitude to Michael Collins, the former director of theNational Air and Space Museum; Melvin B. Zisfein, deputy director; andassistant directors Howard S. Wolko, Donald S. Lopez, and Frederick 6.Durant 111, together with Dr. Tom D. Crouch, Dr. Paul A. Hanle, Dr.Robert Friedman, and Dr. Richard Hirsh of the curatorial staff. Staffmembers of the NASM Library, especially Catherine D. Scott andDominick A. Pisano, were most cooperative in locating obscure referencematerials. The staff of the NASA History Office encouraged me at everystep. I am especially appreciative of the assistance and cooperation givenby Dr. Monte D. Wright, Dr. Frank W. Anderson, Dr. Eugene Emme, Dr.Alex Roland, Lee Saegesser, Leonard Bruno, Carrie Karegeannes, andNancy Brun. Staff members of the National Archives and RecordsService, especially John Taylor and Jo Ann Williamson, were of greatassistance in tracing NACA and NASA record groups. I wish to thankCharles Worman of the Air Force Museum, Carl Berger of the Office ofAir Force History, Dr. Lee M. Pearson of the Naval Air SystemsCommand, and J. Ted Bear of the Air Force Flight Test Center for theirassistance. I am grateful to the faculty of the University of Maryland forassistance and wise counsel, especially Professors Alfred Gessow, John D.Anderson, and Jewel B. Barlow of the Department of AerospaceEngineering; and Wayne Cole, Keith Olson, and Walter Rundell of theDepartment of History. Professor Roger E. Bilstein of the University ofHouston at Clear Lake City was most helpful during my research andinitial writing, as was Professor Richard E. Thomas, director of the Center for Strategic Technology, Texas A & M University.ix
ON THE FRONTIERIt is, of course, to the participants in this history that I owe mygreatest debts. With unfailing courtesy, grace, and assistance, the presentand former personnel of the Dryden Flight Research Center and theirNASA, Air Force, Navy, and industry counterparts welcomed my everyinquiry, patiently answered all questions, and assisted in the detailedreconstruction of past events. Through them I learned much of theflight-testing process and the history of the center-and of the characterand courage of individuals who test the products of engineering drawingboards. Through Ralph Jackson, director of external affairs for theDryden Flight Research Center, I had the opportunity to conduct myresearch in the conducive atmosphere of Dryden during the bustlingdays of the Space Shuttle. It was a refreshing and novel experience for ahistorian; as I examined boxes of records a quarter-century old, therumble of NASA's present experimental aircraft punctuated my research,forcibly reminding me that the history of Dryden is far from over.Finally, this book is dedicated with affection and respect to thememory of Michael R. Swann, a Dryden research pilot of uncommon skilland promise, who died in the crash of a sport glider near California Cityon 28 July 1981.Richard P. HallionUniversity of MarylandAugust 1981X
PrologueA Most Exotic PlaceNortheast of Los Angeles, beyond the coastal range, lies the MojaveDesert, the southwestern corner of which is called Antelope Valley. Thesemiarid area produces alfalfa, turkeys, fruit, almonds-and aircraft.The clear weather and vast, unrestricted space have lured the aircraftindustry as flowers draw bees. Politicians have pragmatically dubbed it“Aerospace Valley.” Its two major communities, Lancaster and Palmdale,cater to the wants and needs of the aerospace community. At Palmdalelooms “Air Force Plant 42,” where products of Northrop, Lockheed, andRockwell scoot aloft. Here is the home of Rockwell’s Space Shuttle andthe B-1 strategic bomber. The valley economy would collapse if theaerospace industry declined, and citizens are determined not to let thathappen. “Vote your pocketbook! Ketcham B-1” read one 1976election poster, and such logic makes sense to desert residents. Lancaster’seconomic heart is located at the Air Force Flight Test Center and NASA’sHugh L. Dryden Flight Research Center, on the shores of Rogers DryLake at Edwards Air Force Base. Lancaster received its name in 1887from homesick Pennsylvania Amish settlers. In 1950, it had a populationof 3924 and was a sleepy desert community where a shopper could go toa store in the midst of a work day only to find a “Gone Hunting” signposted on the door. Then came the aerospace boom. A decade later, thepopulation hit 30 000. Most Edwards workers, be they Air Force, NASA,or private contractors, live in Lancaster.North of Lancaster is the tiny community of Rosamond, home of theTropico gold mine, a grubby desert town of unadorned houses andmobile homes. “Welcome to Rosamond-Gateway to Progress,” proclaims a black-and-white sign on Sierra Highway. Turn right at RosamondBoulevard, and one is soon rolling toward Edwards, running past thesmooth baked clay of Rosamond Dry Lake. Ahead, over scrub-coveredlow hills, stretches the vast parched-silt bed of Rogers Dry Lake.North of Rosamond and 40 kilometers above Lancaster, the townof Mojave hugs open desert between brooding Mount Soledad and theTehachapi range. Mojave was once the terminus for borax-laden mulexi
ON THE FRONTIER9.5zP07Los AngelesThe western Mojave Desertxii
JmBQPROLOGUEtrains, a brawling, hard-living town. Desert winds sweep across Mojave,sometimes overturning trailers and vans, often closing the roads to trucktraffic, usually blowing powdery grit and tumbleweeds across the land.Now the mule trains have been replaced by massive diesel-electriclocomotives running north and south with long strings of hoppers andboxcars paralleling the Sierra Highway, then turning west into Tehachapi.In the crisp desert days, they can be seen from afar, snaking likecaterpillars. At night, their thunderous clatter jars the stillness of thedesert. Mojave is bleak, barely populous enough to rate a few drive-inrestaurants. Mojave’s chief attraction is air racing. Occasionally sportsmenpilots gather at the old Marine Corps air station with their revitalizedBearcats and Mustangs. Amid the throaty rasp of propellers and theoccasional screech of a blown engine, they pit themselves against oneanother to the vicarious enjoyment of thousands.From Mojave one can turn northwest toward Tehachapi andBakersfield, or bear northeast toward Cantil. Here the road againbranches: north along the Sierra Nevada range toward China Lake, oreast to the ghost town of Garlock and the old mining towns of Randsburgand Johannesburg. Shadowed by Red Mountain, Garlock had six millsprocessing gold ore from Randsburg, but it fell into disuse at the turn ofthe century. The town’s ramshackle buildings are buffeted by winds thatrace off the El Paso Mountains and whip across the flats of nearby KoehnDry Lake. Traces of half the world’s minerals can be found nearRandsburg. Its numerous mines-with such names as Napoleon, Olympus,and The Big Norse-thrived during the gold boom, then played out.Prospectors discovered huge tungsten deposits and frantically workedthem through World War I and until the postwar tungsten marketcollapsed. Red Mountain’s prodigious silver deposits caused a resurgentboom until the vein played out in the late 1920s. Now Randsburg isalmost a ghost town, its original buildings mixed in among mobile homes.“Joburg” is saved from extinction only by being on a highway.South of Joburg and Red Mountain is the desert intersection of FourCorners. On the flat ride down from the old mining camps, one noticesonly the swell of Fremont Peak in the east; the endless transmission linesparalleling the road; and to the west, the Air Force tracking station atBoron, its radome sprouting from the ground like a white puffball. FourCorners sits astride Highway 58, the route of the Okies immortalized byJohn Steinbeck. South of Four Corners is the route to Victorville and SanBernardino, across the San Bernardino Mountains. East of Four Cornersis Barstow, a major intersection for truckers.West of Four Corners on Highway 58 is the little town of Boron,where the double crack-crack! of sonic shocks is heard so frequently thatBoron’s citizens coyly proclaim themselves “The Biggest Boom Town in.XI11
O N T H E FRONTIERAmerica.” Boron’s chief product is sodium tetraborate, better known asborax. Introduced into Europe by Marco Polo in the 13th century, boraxremained an uncommon mineral until the discovery of the Mojave’sdeposits in the 19th century. The world’s largest open-pit borate mine isjust outside the town north of the highway. At night, its high-intensitylights can be seen for miles; by day, dust hangs low in the sky. West ofBoron is the little community of North Edwards; like Lancaster, most ofits citizens are or have been affiliated with Edwards Air Force Base. AtNorth Edwards, the traveler can continue west on Highway 58 to Mojave,or (if authorized) can turn south, onto Rosamond Boulevard, drivingdown to Edwards, its hangars gleaming in the distance. And here, thevisitor sees perhaps the weirdest of sights that the desert has to offer: the165-square-kilometer bed of Rogers Dry Lake.Dry lakes are the flattest of all geological land forms. Rogers DryLake is a playa, a pluvial lake, one of 120 such lakes in the western UnitedStates. Pluvial lakes are believed to have first appeared in the Pleistoceneepoch, about 1.5 billion years ago. Glacial activity dropped temperaturesand increased precipitation, creating hundreds of pluvial lakes, whichfluctuate between wet and dry phases. They appear in arid regions, in thelowest areas of basins, and contain great quantities of sediment. Rogersoriginally received its water from overflow of rivers in the Sierra Nevadato the northwest. In time, the water sources disappeared, the lake dried,and the arid Mojave now keeps it that way except for the briefest ofperiods when rain floods its surface to a depth of a few inches.The desert winds blow the water (and suspended sediment) back andforth across the lake surface, filling cracks and smoothing the silt. Whenthe water evaporates, the lake is perfectly flat and smooth. Once dry,Rogers is also hard; the water and winds remove dissolved salts from thesediment, which dries to a hard crust-at Rogers, from 19 to 45centimeters deep. California has a great number of lakes like RogersRosamond, Mirage, Cuddeback, Harper, Searles, Koehn, China, Ballarat.Rogers, the largest dry lake in the world, is clearly visible to the travelerflying into Los Angeles from the east. In the early part of the 20thcentury, a silver and gold mining firm established a camp on its shoresand named it Rodriguez, after the company’s name. Rodriguez eventually became Rogers. The lake, shaped like a lopsided figure eight, is dryfor 10 months of each year. During that time its surface can support upto 1’760kilograms per square centimeter (250 pounds per square inch) ofpressure. Even the heaviest aircraft can take off from and land on the lake,making Rogers the largest landing field in the world.Aviation was a long time in coming to Rogers. At first the lake servedonly as a bed for the Santa Fe Railway and a small camp specializing inthe extraction of drilling mud for use in oil wells. In 1910 came the firstxiv
aPROLOGUEpermanent settlers, Clifford and Effie Corum, and Clifford’s brotherRalph. The Corums were determined to start a farm community in themidst of this wasteland; surprisingly, they convinced other settlers to jointhem. The brothers opened a general store, dug wells for water, and heldchurch services in their home. The Santa Fe Railway’s freights alwaysstopped for water. Encouraged, the Corums decided to name the littlecommunity after themselves. Here they ran into a snag. Postal authoritiesobjected because California already had a Coram township; the similarityin spelling would surely cause confusion. The Corums then suggestedMuroc, created by spelling the name backwards, but the Sante Fe Railwayobjected because of a rail stop named Murdock. The railroad lyricallysuggested Dorado, Ophir, Yermo, or Istar. (It is puzzlin
(The NASA history series) (NASA SP ; 4303) Bibliography: p. 363 Includes index. 1. Dryden Flight Research Facility - History. I. Title. 11. Series. 111. Series: NASA SP ; 4303. TLb21.312.H34 1984 629.1’072079488 83-14136 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S
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