Wildland Fire Suppression Tactics Reference Guide

PREFACEThe Wildland Fire Suppression Tactics Reference Guide is designed tosupplement courses that teach tactics in the Wildland Fire Qualification System.It can be used by the beginning firefighter to learn basic tactics as well as areview of fire suppression tactics for the advanced firefighter.This reference guide was developed under the direction of the National WildfireCoordinating Group Training Working Team with coordination and assistance ofFire Managers from the following agencies:United States Department of the InteriorBureau of Land ManagementNational Park ServiceBureau of Indian AffairsUnited States Department of AgricultureForest ServiceNational Association of State ForestersColorado State Forest ServiceMinnesota Division of ForestryWe appreciate the efforts those people associated with the design and developmentof this product.1

Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from:National Interagency Fire CenterATTN: Supply3833 S. Development Ave.Boise, Idaho 83705Order NFES #125611

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE GUIDE. 1FIRE ORDERS2WATCH OUT SITUATIONS3LOOKOUTS, COMMUNICATIONS, ESCAPE ROUTES, SAFETY ZONES(LCES)4SECTION 1 - FIRE SUPPRESSION PRINCIPLES5Fire Sizeup and Initial AttackHow to Attack a FireWhere to Attack a FireFireline LocationFireline FlaggingFireline ConstructionCoyote TacticCrew Production RatesFireline ExplosivesMopupMinimum Impact Suppression Tactics (MIST)715182026293638414448SECTION 2 - USE OF WATER AND ADDITIVES57Types of PumpsHydraulicsSeries, Parallel, and Staged PumpingHose LaysMopupTactical Use of WaterSurfactantsClass A Foam.RetardantsFiregels1115962717578799293101101

SECTION 3 - USE OF FIRE IN CONTROL OPERATIONSBurning Out and BackfiringTypes of Fire SpreadIgnition TechniquesStrip FiringOne, Two, Three - Three, Two, One (1-2-3/3-2-1) Firing ConceptHead and Strip Head FiringBlowhole FiringSpot FiringRing FiringChevron FiringBurn StripPlanning and Conducting Firing OperationsSpecial Firing ConsiderationsFiring EquipmentSECTION 4 - MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTDozersComparison of Dozers Used For Fireline ConstructionDozer Production RatesDozer Line Construction PrinciplesTractor PlowsPrinciples of Tractor/Plow OperationsEnginesMobile AttackTandem TacticPincer TacticEnvelopment TacticStationary AttackInside-out TacticParallel AttackEngine Production 27131133134140144148149153156157158159160161162164

SECTION 5 - TACTICAL AIR OPERATIONSFactors Affecting Aircraft UseFactors to Consider in Retardant Aircraft UseTypes, Effects, and Use of RetardantRecommended Retardant Coverage LevelsRetardant Evaluation CriteriaAir Tanker TacticsPrinciples of Retardant ApplicationSECTION 6 - WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACEKinds of Wildland/Urban InterfaceStructural Fire BehaviorWildland/Urban Fire Sizeup ConsiderationsStructure TriageWildland/Urban Interface Firefighting TacticsStructure Full ContainmentStructure Partial ContainmentStructure No ContainmentStructural Firefighting Situations That Shout "Watch Out"Structural Watch Out Situations & Triage Made Easier to 194195196200201SECTION 7 - FlTELS, FIRE BEHAVIOR, AND TACTICS BY GEOGRAPHICAREAS OF THE UNITED STATES203AlaskaNorthwest and Northern Rocky MountainsSouthern and Central CaliforniaGreat Basin and Southern Rocky MountainsSouthwestNortheastSoutheastGLOSSARY OF TERMS205219237257283297313333v

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INTRODUCTIONThe Wildland Fire Suppression Tactics Reference Guide provides basic tacticalinformation on suppressing wildland fires. It also provides information onwildland fire fuels, fire behavior, and tactics by geographic areas of the UnitedStates.It can be used by the beginning firefighter to learn more about tactics ordetermining exactly where and how to build a control line and what othersuppression measures are necessary to extinguish a fire.It can be used as a review of fire suppression tactics for the advanced firefighter.The tactics reference guide is intended to be a supplement, but not a substitute forwildland fire training. It does not qualify a person for any wildland firefightingposition.This guide does not include nor address the constraints on firefighting imposedby environmental laws and regulations; i.e., designated wilderness areas,wilderness study areas, threatened and endangered species, cultural andarcheology sites, air quality, etc.1

FIRE ORDERSFight fire aggressively but provide for safety first.Initiate all action based on current and expected fire behavior.Recognize current weather conditions and obtain forecasts.Ensure instructions are given and understood.Obtain current information on fire status.Remain in communication with crew members, your supervisor andadjoining forces.Determine safety zones and escape routes.Establish lookouts in potentially hazardous situations.Retain control at all times.Stay alert, keep calm, think clearly, act decisively.2

WATCH OUT SITUATIONS(Survival Checklist)Fire not scouted and sized up.In country not seen by daylight.Safety zones and escape routes not identified.Unfamiliar with weather and local factors influencing fire behavior.Uninformed on strategy, tactics and hazards.Instructions and assignments not clear.No communication link with crew members/supervisor.Constructing fireline without safe anchor point.Building fireline downhill with fire below.Attempting frontal attack on the fire.Unbumed fuel between you and the fire.Cannot see main fire, not in contact with anyone who can.On a hillside where rolling material can ignite fuel below.Weather is getting hotter and drier.Wind increases and/or changes direction.Getting frequent spot fires across line.Terrain and fuels make escape to safety zones difficult.Taking a nap near the fireline.3

LOOKOUTS, COMMUNICATIONS, ESCAPE ROUTES, SAFETY ZONES(LCES)Figure 1 displays the concept of LCES which is posting lookout(s) if you cannotsee the fire, maintaining communications between the lookout(s) and firefighters,and always knowing your escape route(s) and safety zone(s). If LCES isconstantly practiced the Standard Firefighting Orders and Watch Out Situationswill not be compromised.Figure I-LCESI LeES ILookout(s) -- -- Communication(s)--r(f)ObjectiveHazard Escape Route(s)ySafety Zone(s)LeES must be established & known toALL firefighters BEFORE needed.4

SECTION 1 - FIRE SUPPRESSION PRINCIPLESStrategy is an overall plan of action for fighting a fire which gives regard to themost cost efficient use of personnel and equipment in consideration of resourcevalues threatened, fire behavior, legal constraints, and objectives established forresource management.Tactics are the operational aspects of fire suppression. Determining exactlywhere and how to build a control line and what other suppression measures arenecessary to extinguish a fire. Tactics must be consistent with the strategyestablished for suppressing a fire.The purpose of this section on fire suppression principles is to acquaint allfirefighters with the factors to size up a fire and apply the strategy and tactics thatwill enable an appropriate suppression response to be completed in a safe,efficient manner, and facilitate rehabilitation of the suppression impacts.Most wildland fires are suppressed by initial attack (first to arrive) forces. Somewildland fires become large for various reasons. Fire suppression principlesapply to initial attack as well as to large fires or parts of large fires.5

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FIRE SIZEUP AND INITIAL ATTACKOften times firefighters and incident commanders take shortcuts concerning firesizeup, establishing communications and safety. A thorough fire sizeup,establishing communications among all resources on a fire, and applying safety toall aspects of fire suppression are critical elements that must be adhered to. Ifadequate communications can not be established and firefighter safety iscompromised then it is time to back off and re-evaluate your tactics.If you are assigned to fight fire in an area where you are unfamiliar with thelocal fuels, weather, topography, and fire behavior you should request a briefingfrom the local agency, to provide you with this information.In many cases sizeup and initial attack go hand in hand because the firefighterwith a passion for safety begins to gather information about the fire situationfrom the initial dispatch and/or prior to departing to the fire incident.En route To A FireEn route to a fire begin to think about your knowledge of the fire area and howcurrent conditions compare to past experiences. Some items to consider are: Firefighter safety. Fuels and terrain. What are the fuels? Are they heavy timber types orlight, flashy, grass types? Are the fuels sheltered from direct solarradiation due to aspect or cover? Is the terrain steep or gentle? How doyou expect this fire to bum compared to recent fires in similar areas? Weather-is the windspeed greater or less than the forecast? Is it fromthe same direction? Are there dust devils or gusty winds that wouldindicate erratic behavior? Is the humidity about what was forecast? Arethere any indicator clouds or thunderstorms? Smoke column-check size, height, color, direction and shape.The greater the height and size of the column the greater the fireintensity. A fractured (bent over by the wind) column indicates a wind driven fire. Wind-driven fires can pose serious threats to safety as thefire grows. Spotting can become long range creating new fires ahead ofthe main fire. However, direction and rate of spread is morepredictable.7

A large developing mushroom shaped column can indicate a plume dominated fire where the fire's rate of spread and direction is veryunpredictable. Strong wind indrafts and downbursts can occur withshort range spotting in all directions.Light colored smoke generally indicates lighter burning fuels whereas adark colored smoke indicates heavier burning fuels such as brush ortimber. Access routes and their limitations-also look for alternate rOlltes. Fire barriers (natural and human made). Potential water sources. Land ownership (including cooperative agreements and assistance on firesuppression). History of fires in area and cause. Capabilities of responding resources and available back-up forces. Look for people coming from the fire area or suspicious people at thefire scene. Write down license plate numbers and descriptions of vehiclesand/or people. Public safety concerns.Arrival On Fire SceneSafety of assigned resources, facilities, and the public should always be a primeitem to consider when evaluating possible attack options. An appropriate decisionalways provides for safety first. The Fire Orders, Watch Out Situations, and theLCES system are to be implemented and reviewed often.After arrival on the fire scene, your next decisions are critical to initial attacksuccess. This is where you "make it or break it." If you go off in all directionslittle will be accomplished and firefighter safety could be jeopardized. You needto gather additional critical information to complete the fire sizeup andformulate an appropriate plan of attack.These are the key factors you should observe in relation to fuels, weather,topography, and fire behavior during your sizeup process:8