Study Material For MS-07/MCA/204
Computer Organization and ArchitectureStudy Material for MS-07/MCA/204Directorate of Distance EducationGuru Jambheshwar University of Science &Technology, Hisar
Study Material Prepared by Rajeev Jha & Preeti BhardwajCopyright , Rajeev Jha & Preeti BhardwajPublished by Excel Books, A-45, Naraina, Phase I, New Delhi-110 028Published by Anurag Jain for Excel Books, A-45, Naraina, Phase I, New Delhi-110 028 and printed by him at Excel Printers,C-206, Naraina, Phase I, New Delhi - 110 028
CONTENTSUnit 1Principles of Computer Design1.1 Introduction1.2 Software1.3 Hardware1.4 Software-Hardware Interaction Layers in Computer Architecture1.5 Operating System1.6 Application Software1.7 Central Processing Unit1.8 Machine Language Instructions1.9 Addressing Modes1.10 Instruction Cycle1.11 Execution Cycle (Instruction Execution)1.12 Summary1.13 Keywords1.14 Review Questions1.15 Further Readings5Unit 2Control Unit and Microprogramming2.1 Introduction2.2 Control Unit2.3 Basic Control Unit Operation2.4 Data Path and Control Path Design2.5 Microprogramming2.6 Hardwired Control Unit2.7 Overview of RISC/CISC2.8 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)2.9 Pipelining Processing2.10 Superscalar Processors2.11 Summary2.12 Keywords2.13 Review Questions2.14 Further Readings25Unit 3Memory Organization3.1 Introduction3.2 Memory system3.3 Storage Technologies3.4 Memory Array Organization3.5 Memory Management3.6 Memory Hierarchy3.7 Memory Interleaving3.8 Virtual Memory3.9 FIFO Algorithm3.10 LRU Algorithm3.11 Cache Memory3.12 Summary3.13 Keywords3.14 Review Questions3.15 Further Readings61Unit 4Input-Output Devices and Characteristics4.1 Introduction4.2 I/O and their Brief Description4.3 Input-output Processor (IOP)4.4 Bus Interface4.5 Isolated Versus Memory-mapped I/O4.6 Data Transfer Techniques4.7 Interrupt-Initiated I/O4.8 Communication between the CPU and the Channel4.9 I/O Interrupts4.10 Performance Evaluation - Benchmark4.11 TPC-H4.12 TPC-R4.13 TPC-W4.14 Summary4.15 Keywords4.16 Review Questions4.17 Further Readings96
Unit 1Principles of Computer DesignLearning ObjectivesAfter completion of this unit, you should be able to : describe software and hardware interaction layers in computer architecture Describe central processing unit Describe various machine language instructions Describe various addressing modes Describe various instruction types and Instruction cycleIntroductionCopy from page-12, BSIT-301, PTUSoftwareSoftware, or program enables a computer to perform specific tasks, asopposed to the physical components of the system (hardware). Thisincludes application software such as a word processor, which enables auser to perform a task, and system software such as an operating system,which enables other software to run properly, by interfacing withhardware and with other software or custom software made to userspecifications.Types of SoftwarePractical computer systems divide software into three major classes:system software, programming software and application software, althoughthe distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred. System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. Itincludes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowingsystems, utilities and more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate theapplications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particularcomputer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features,and such accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays,keyboards, etc.Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writingcomputer programs and software using different programming languages in amore convenient way. The tools include text editors, compilers, interpreters,1
linkers, debuggers, and so on. An Integrated development environment (IDE)merges those tools into a software bundle, and a programmer may not need totype multiple commands for compiling, interpreter, debugging, tracing, and etc.,because the IDE usually has an advanced graphical user interface, or GUI. Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (noncomputer related) tasks. Typical applications include industrial automation,business software, educational software, medical software, databases, andcomputer games. Businesses are probably the biggest users of applicationsoftware, but almost every field of human activity now uses some form ofapplication software. It is used to automate all sorts of functions.OperationComputer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (suchas a hard drive, memory, or RAM). Once the software is loaded, thecomputer is able to execute the software. Computers operate by executingthe computer program. This involves passing instructions from theapplication software, through the system software, to the hardware whichultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instructioncauses the computer to carry out an operation -- moving data, carryingout a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another.Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers whichenable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially largeamounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using"pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations suchas incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complexcomputations may involve many operations and data elements together.Instructions may be performed sequentially, conditionally, oriteratively. Sequential instructions are those operations that areperformed one after another. Conditional instructions are performed suchthat different sets of instructions execute depending on the value(s) ofsome data. In some languages this is known as an "if" statement.Iterative instructions are performed repetitively and may depend on somedata value. This is sometimes called a "loop." Often, one instructionmay "call" another set of instructions that are defined in some otherprogram or module. When more than one computer processor is used,instructions may be executed simultaneously.A simple example of the way software operates is what happens when auser selects an entry such as "Copy" from a menu. In this case, aconditional instruction is executed to copy text from data in a'document' area residing in memory, perhaps to an intermediate storage2
area known as a 'clipboard' data area. If a different menu entry such as"Paste" is chosen, the software may execute the instructions to copy thetext from the clipboard data area to a specific location in the same oranother document in memory.Depending on the application, even the example above could becomecomplicated. The field of software engineering endeavors to manage thecomplexity of how software operates. This is especially true forsoftware that operates in the context of a large or powerful computersystem.Currently, almost the only limitations on the use of computer softwarein applications is the ingenuity of the designer/programmer.Consequently, large areas of activities (such as playing grand masterlevel chess) formerly assumed to be incapable of software simulation arenow routinely programmed. The only area that has so far provedreasonably secure from software simulation is the realm of human art—especially, pleasing music and literature.Kinds of software by operation: computer program as executable, sourcecode or script, configuration.HardwareComputer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including thedigital circuitry, as distinguished from the computer software thatexecutes within the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequentlychanged, in comparison with software and data, which are "soft" in thesense that they are readily created, modified or erased on the computer.Firmware is a special type of software that rarely, if ever, needs to bechanged and so is stored on hardware devices such as read-only memory(ROM) where it is not readily changed (and is therefore "firm" ratherthan just "soft").Most computer hardware is not seen by normal users. It is in embeddedsystems in automobiles, microwave ovens, electrocardiograph machines,compact disc players, and other devices. Personal computers, thecomputer hardware familiar to most people, form only a small minority ofcomputers (about 0.2% of all new computers produced in 2003).Personal computer hardwareA typical pc consists of a case or chassis in desktop or tower shape andthe following parts:3
Typical Motherboard found in a computer Motherboard or system board with slots for expansion cards and holding partso Central processing unit (CPU)Computer fan - used to cool down the CPUo Random Access Memory (RAM) - for program execution and short termdata storage, so the computer does not have to take the time to access thehard drive to find the file(s) it requires. More RAM will normallycontribute to a faster PC. RAM is almost always removable as it sits inslots in the motherboard, attached with small clips. The RAM slots arenormally located next to the CPU socket.o Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI)in some newer computerso BusesPower supply - a case that holds a transformer, voltage control, and (usually) acooling fanStorage controllers of IDE, SATA, SCSI or other type, that control hard disk,floppy disk, CD-ROM and other drives; the controllers sit directly on themotherboard (on-board) or on expansion cardsVideo display controller that produces the output for the computer display. Thiswill either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI,PCI-E or AGP), requiring a Graphics Card.Computer bus controllers (parallel, serial, USB, FireWire) to connect thecomputer to external peripheral devices such as printers or scannersSome type of a removable media writer:o CD - the most common type of removable media, cheap but fragile.CD-ROM DriveCD Writero DVDDVD-ROM DriveDVD WriterDVD-RAM Driveo Floppy disko Zip driveo USB flash drive AKA a Pen Driveo Tape drive - mainly for backup and long-term storageInternal storage - keeps data inside the computer for later use.o Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.o Disk array controllerSound card - translates signals from the system board into analog voltage levels,and has terminals to plug in speakers.4
Networking - to connect the computer to the Internet and/or other computerso Modem - for dial-up connectionso Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to othercomputers.Other peripheralsIn addition, hardware can include external components of a computersystem. The following are either standard or very common. Input deviceso Text input devicesKeyboardo Pointing devicesMouseTrackballo Gaming devicesJoystickGame padGame controllero Image, Video input devicesImage scannerWebcamo Audio input devicesMicrophoneOutput deviceso Image, Video output devicesPrinter: Peripheral device that produces a hard copy. (Inkjet, Laser)Monitor: Device that takes signals and displays them. (CRT,LCD)o Audio output devicesSpeakers: A device that converts analog audio signals into theequivalent air vibrations in order to make audible sound.Headset: A device similar in functionality to that of a regulartelephone handset but is worn on the head to keep the hands free.Student-Activity1.2.3.4.5.What is computer Software?What is computer Hardware?List various Input and Output devices.Describe various Audio Output devices.What is the function of RAM5
Software-Hardware Interaction layers in ComputerArchitectureIn computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual designand fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It is ablueprint and functional description of requirements (especially speedsand interconnections) and design implementations for the various partsof a computer — focusing largely on the way by which the centralprocessing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses inmemory.It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting andinterconnecting hardware components to create computers that meetfunctional, performance and cost goals."Architecture" therefore typically refers to the fixed internalstructure of the CPU (i.e. electronic switches to represent logic gates)to perform logical operations, and may also include the built-ininterface (i.e. opcodes) by which hardware resources (i.e. CPU, memory,and also motherboard, peripherals) may be used by the software.It is frequently confused with computer organization. But computerarchitecture is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen bya machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including theinstruction set, memory address modes, processor registers, and addressand data formats; whereas the computer organization is a lower level,more concrete, description of the system that involves how theconstituent parts of the system are interconnected and how theyinteroperate in order to implement the architectural specification.6
Fig : A typical vision of a computer architecture as a series ofabstraction layers: hardware, firmware, assembler, kernel, operatingsystem and applicationsAbstraction LayerAn abstraction layer (or abstraction level) is a way of hiding theimplementation details of a particular set of functionality. Perhaps themost well known software models which use layers of abstraction are theOSI 7 Layer model for computer protocols, OpenGL graphics drawinglibrary, and the byte stream I/O model originated by Unix and adopted byMSDOS, Linux, and most other modern operating systems.In computer science, an abstraction level is a generalization of a modelor algorithm, away from any specific implementation. Thesegeneralizations arise from broad similarities that are best encapsulatedby models that express similarities present in various specificimplementations. The simplification provided by a good abstraction layerallows for easy reuse by distilling a useful concept or metaphor so thatsituations where it may be accurately applied can be quickly recognized.A good abstraction will generalize that which can be made abstract;while allowing specificity where the abstraction breaks down and itssuccessful application requires customization to each unique requirementor problem.Firmware7
In computing, firmware is software that is embedded in a hardwaredevice. It is often provided on flash ROMs or as a binary image filethat can be uploaded onto existing hardware by a user. Firmware isdefined as: the computer program in a read-only memory (ROM) integrated circuit (ahardware part number or other configuration identifier is usually used to representthe software);the erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chip, whose programmay be modified by special external hardware, but not by [a general purpose]application program.the electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chip,whose program may be modified by special electrical external hardware (not theusual optical light), but not by [a general purpose] application program.AssemblerAn assembly language program is translated into the target computer'smachine code by a utility program called an assembler.Typically amodern assembler creates object code by translating assemblyinstruction mnemonics into opcodes, and by resolving symbolic names formemory locations and other entities. The use of symbolic references is akey feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manualaddress updates after program modifications.KernelIn computing, the kernel is the central component of most computeroperating systems (OSs). Its responsibilities include managing thesystem's resources and the communication between hardware and softwarecomponents. As a basic component of an operating system, a kernelprovides the lowest-level abstraction layer for the resources(especially memory, processor and I/O devices) that applications mustcontrol to perform their function. It typically makes these facilitiesavailable to application processes through inter-process communicationmechanisms and system calls.These tasks are done differently by different kernels, depending ontheir design and implementation. While monolithic kernels will try toachieve these goals by executing all the code in the same address spaceto increase the performance of the system, micro kernels run most oftheir services in user space, aiming to improve maintainability and8
modularity of the code base. A range of possibilities exists betweenthese two extremes.Fig : A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of acomputer.Operating SystemAn operating system (OS) is a computer program that manages thehardware and software resources of a computer. At the foundation of allsystem software, an operating system performs basic tasks such ascontrolling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests,controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking, andmanaging files. It also may provide a graphical user interface forhigher level functions. It forms a platform for other software.Application SoftwareApplication software is a subclass of computer software that employsthe capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishesto perform. This should be contrasted with system software which isinvolved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typicallydoes not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefitthe user. In this context the term application refers to both theapplication software and its implementation.Central Processing UnitCopy introduction from page-66, BSIT-301, PTU9
Student Activity1. Describe various software-hardware interactionlayers in computer hardware.2. Define CPU. Describe its various parts.Machine Language InstructionsA computer executes machine language programs mechanically -that is without understanding them or thinking about them -simply because of the way it is physically put together. Thisis not an easy concept. A computer is a machine built ofmillions of tiny switches called transistors, which have theproperty that they can be wired together in such a way that anoutput from one switch can turn another switch on or off. As acomputer computes, these switches turn each other on or off ina pattern determined both by the way they are wired togetherand by the program that the computer is executing.Machine language instructions are expressed as binary numbers.A binary number is made up of just two possible digits, zeroand one. So, a machine language instruction is just a sequenceof zeros and ones. Each particular sequence encodes someparticular instruction. The data that the computer manipulatesis also encoded as binary numbers. A computer can work directlywith binary numbers because switches can readily represent suchnumbers: Turn the switch on to represent a one; turn it off torepresent a zero. Machine language instructions are stored inmemory as patterns of switches turned on or off. When a machinelanguage instruction is loaded into the CPU, all that happensis that certain switches are turned on or off in the patternthat encodes that particular instruction. The CPU is built torespond to this pattern by executing the instruction itencodes; it does this simply because of the way all the otherswitches in the CPU are wired together.Addressing ModesCopy from page-66 to page-69, upto student activity, BSIT-301, PTUInstruction Types10
The type of instruction is recognized by the computer control from thefour bits in position 12 through 15 of the instruction. If the threeopcode bits in positions 12 through 14 are not equal to 111, theinstruction is a memory reference type and the bit in the position 15 istaken as the addressing mode. If the bit is 1, the instruction is aninput-output instruction.Only three bits of the instruction are used for the operation code. Itmay s
Published by Anurag Jain for Excel Books, A-45, Naraina, Phase I, New Delhi-110 028 and printed by him at Excel Printers, C-206, Naraina, Phase I, New Delhi - 110 028. CONTENTS Unit 1 Principles of Com
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