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This article was downloaded by: [141.211.46.127]On: 02 June 2015, At: 08:36Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UKMedia PsychologyPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription irtually Perfect: Image Retouching andAdolescent Body ImageabKristen Harrison & Veronica HefneraDepartment of Communication Studies and Research Center forGroup Dynamics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USAbDepartment of Communication Studies, Chapman University,Orange, California, USAPublished online: 24 Mar 2014.Click for updatesTo cite this article: Kristen Harrison & Veronica Hefner (2014) Virtually Perfect: Image Retouchingand Adolescent Body Image, Media Psychology, 17:2, 134-153, DOI: 10.1080/15213269.2013.770354To link to this article: SE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLETaylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at s
Media Psychology, 17:134–153, 2014Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1521-3269 print/1532-785X onlineDOI: 10.1080/15213269.2013.770354Virtually Perfect: Image Retouching andAdolescent Body ImageKRISTEN HARRISONDepartment of Communication Studies and Research Center for Group Dynamics,University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USAVERONICA HEFNERDownloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015Department of Communication Studies, Chapman University, Orange, California, USAMost studies of ideal-body media effects on body image focus onthe extreme thinness of the models, not their idealness. In modernmedia, this idealness is often created or maximized via digitalimage editing. This experiment tested the effects of image editingoutside the research-typical context of exclusive thinness. Originalunretouched photographs were manipulated by a professional retoucher to produce unretouched and retouched image conditions.In a third condition (retouched-aware), the retouched images wereexplicitly labeled as retouched. Adolescents (N D 393, averageage 15.43) were randomly assigned to one of these conditionsor a no-exposure control, and they completed a questionnairefollowing exposure. Objectified body consciousness increased andphysical self-esteem decreased among male and female adolescentsin the retouched-aware condition only. This boomerang effect ofretouching awareness is explored in the discussion.Airbrushing, Photoshopping, retouching, photo manipulation, photo tampering, digital forgery, image editing: These are all terms used to describethe practice of altering photographs to change elements of composition. AsFarid (2009) wrote about the ease of doctoring digital photographs, ‘‘Alteringdigital imagery is now ubiquitous. People have come to expect it in thefashion and entertainment world, where airbrushing blemishes and wrinklesaway is routine’’ (p. 42). Image editing has become so commonplace thatordinary people use it on social networking and online dating sites (Hancock& Toma, 2009). In spite of public acknowledgment of image editing, humansAddress correspondence to Kristen Harrison, 5389 North Quad, University of Michigan,105 S. State St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA. E-mail: krishar@umich.edu134
Image Retouching and Adolescent Body Image135are unskilled at detecting photo manipulation based on visual inspectionalone (Farid & Bravo, 2010). Thus, media audiences are aware that mostcommercial images have been altered but have trouble identifying the alteredelements.Downloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015THE ‘‘IDEAL’’ IN IDEAL-BODY MEDIAIn its early years, image editing was used primarily for political purposes likepropaganda (King, 1997). In the digital age, image editing has become a requirement in the production of commercial images used to promote productsand services for the fashion, health, entertainment, and beauty industries. Inhis book on the ethics of image editing, Wheeler (2002) argued, ‘‘In fashion,drastically manipulated photography is taken for granted by art directorsand editors, and editorial layouts are sometimes barely distinguishable fromadvertising spreads’’ (p. 121). Research on the extremely thin media bodyideal (e.g., Harrison, 2009) is founded on the assumption that media imagesof thin models and celebrities are thin and ideal, inasmuch as they areperfected through the use of appearance-enhancing devices like makeup,styling, lighting, and image editing, which is a uniquely effective tool formanufacturing idealness because it creates outcomes (e.g., removal of pores)that cannot be achieved through natural means.The problem with the persistent confounding of thinness and idealnessin research is that it problematizes efforts to determine the unique impact ofidealness outside the context of extreme thinness. A recent, comprehensivemeta-analysis of ideal-body media effects on body image (Grabe, Ward,& Hyde, 2008) comprised 141 studies and 15,047 participants. Effect sizesfor body dissatisfaction, thin-ideal internalization, and eating behaviors andbeliefs about eating ranged from Cohen’s d D .28 to .39, representingdecreased satisfaction with the body and increased eating pathology. Forsome outcomes (e.g., thin-ideal internalization), effect sizes were larger foradolescents (d D .42) than for adults (d D .31). Unfortunately, it remainsa mystery how the visual features of the research stimuli produced theseeffects, as none of the studies in this meta-analysis investigated idealnessoutside the context of exclusive thinness. Most researchers assume that themodels’ thinness is the chief visual element encouraging excessive dieting,perhaps with good reason: Thinness itself is considered by many to be anessential element of physical attractiveness (Harrison, 2006). However, socialcognitive theories of media effects (e.g., Bandura, 2002) hold that a particularcharacter attribute becomes most worthy of emulation when it is cast in ahighly flattering light. Since Western commercial media overwhelmingly castthinness as ideal (Greenberg, Eastin, Hofschire, Lachlan, & Brownell, 2003),there is a need for research exploring the unique impact of idealness invisual media applied to a range of body types, not just model thinness.
136K. Harrison and V. HefnerDownloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015Given the paucity of research in this area, the purpose of this studywas to manipulate the idealness construct via an image-editing treatmentthat transformed unretouched photos to retouched photos, and measure theeffects of this manipulation on teens’ perceptions of their own bodies. Theunretouched photos represent ordinary people with a variety of body types;the retouched photos represent the same people, digitally edited to makethem more ideal. This study also manipulated participants’ awareness of theretouching process with an additional condition pairing the retouched photoswith a statement informing participants that the photos were retouched. Allthree image conditions were compared to a no-images control to provide abaseline for teen body perceptions. Thus, this study contributes uniquelyto the literature on ideal-body media effects by exploring the effects ofdigitally produced idealness untethered to the exclusively thin body type,and testing the potential for awareness of digital manipulation to mitigateteens’ responses to manipulated images.THEORETICAL RATIONALEAdolescents are exposed to a great deal of visual media altered by imageediting. According to Rideout, Roberts, and Foehr (2010), in 2009, 8–18-yearolds in the United States spent more than three hours per day with mediathat are frequently image edited: 38 minutes with print media, 25 minuteswith movies, an hour and 25 minutes with computers, and an hour and13 minutes with video games. This level of exposure is cause for concernbecause even though teens are developmentally capable of distinguishingfantasy from reality in media (Dorr, 1983), image-editing technologies havebecome so sophisticated that even adults cannot accurately identify sites ofretouching (Farid & Bravo, 2010). Developmental gains cannot compensatefor technology that is capable of outsmarting human perception.As of this writing, published social scientific research on the effectsof image editing outside the context of model thinness could not be located; however, indirect evidence of the impact of idealized media mightbe derived from statistics representing the popularity of appearance-alteringsurgery among teens. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery(2011) reported that in 1997, the number of Americans having surgical andnonsurgical cosmetic procedures was 1.68 million; by 2011, that number hadgrown to 9.19 million. In 2011 alone, 131,877 procedures were performed onU.S. children and teens under 18. The most common procedures were laserhair removal, microdermabrasion, rhinoplasty (surgical nose reshaping), andotoplasty (surgical ear reshaping). Hair, skin, noses, and ears are all routinelyrefined by image editors in visual media. While these data do not prove thatteen interest in cosmetic procedures is driven by media images of perfection,the data justify a call for research investigating the link between exposure to
Downloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015Image Retouching and Adolescent Body Image137retouched images and teens’ perceptions of their own appearance and theircritical assessment of its adequacy.The self-enhancement motive identified within social comparison theoryand research (Suls, Martin, & Wheeler, 2002; Wills, 1981) has been describedas a drive to compare the self to less fortunate or endowed others to reapthe benefits of contrast. This view implies that downward social comparisonis beneficial to the self-concept, whereas upward social comparison is detrimental. Exposure to perfected human images should be processed by theaverage viewer in an upward-comparison fashion, increasing appearancerelated self-consciousness (i.e., objectified body consciousness; Lindberg,Hyde, & McKinley, 2006) and decreasing physical self-esteem via criticalassessment of personal appearance (Marsh, Richards, Johnson, Roche, &Tremayne, 1994).Research findings support such a pattern. In a study of late adolescentwomen’s body image following exposure to idealized images of models,Tiggemann and Polivy (2010) asked participants to compare themselves tothe models on the basis of intelligence or appearance. Exposure to themodels increased body dissatisfaction only among women comparing on thebasis of appearance. Women comparing on the basis of intelligence actuallyreported less body dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that the womenwho compared on the basis of appearance were comparing upwardly. Sinceimage editing is an appearance-enhancing manipulation, it follows that upward comparison should be more common than downward comparisonamong teens viewing retouched imagery. Although some upward comparison could certainly occur with unretouched images if the people in those images are deemed attractive, more should occur with retouched images of thesame people given the attractiveness-enhancing function of image editing.It was, therefore, predicted that upward social comparison would be morelikely to occur among participants exposed to retouched images, resultingin more objectified body consciousness and lower physical self-esteem, thanamong participants exposed to unretouched images or no images.H1: Adolescents exposed to retouched images will report greater objectifiedbody consciousness and lower physical self-esteem than those exposedto no images.H2: Adolescents exposed to retouched images will report greater objectifiedbody consciousness and lower physical self-esteem than those exposedto unretouched images.KNOWLEDGE OF RETOUCHING AS VISUAL LITERACYVisual literacy has been defined broadly as ‘‘the ability to ‘read,’ interpret, andunderstand information presented in pictorial or graphic images’’ (Wileman,
Downloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015138K. Harrison and V. Hefner1993, p. 114). Sinatra (1986) emphasized the role of viewer schemas in thisprocess by defining visual literacy as ‘‘the active reconstruction of past visualexperience with incoming visual messages to obtain meaning’’ (p. 5). Viewerfamiliarity with retouching conventions is one such schema. The web isloaded with sites dedicated to parodying amateurish, overdone image editingin commercial mass media (see psdisasters.com for examples), suggestingthat viewers recognize obvious and ham-fisted image editing for what itis. However, high-end commercial media typically use professional, virtually undetectable retouching techniques. This is why humans are unskilledat spotting subtle image editing (Farid & Bravo, 2010) and may not havedeveloped a schematic filter for processing fake imagery.However, being told that an image has been retouched forces the application of such a filter, and may thereby discourage upward social comparisonby encouraging the viewer to discount the photographed subject as a suitable comparison target (Suls, 1977). Halliwell, Easun, and Harcourt (2011)conducted an intervention with adolescent girls and found that viewing avideo discussing the artificial nature of media images immediately beforeviewing idealized images of thin models eliminated the negative effect onbody esteem that was observed among a comparable sample of girls whohad not viewed the video. The idea that awareness of retouching shouldmitigate problematic effects of exposure to retouched imagery is widely accepted and reflected in public outreach efforts such as Dove’s ‘‘Real Beauty’’campaign (used by Halliwell et al. [2011] in their intervention), which reliedon social media to distribute online videos deconstructing the process ofdigital editing to educate viewers about the steps involved in transforming areal woman into a billboard model. (Notably, the images of plus-size womenused throughout the campaign were also retouched; see Collins, 2008.)Following the rationale that awareness of retouching should facilitatecritical processing of idealized media images, Bissell (2006) devised an experiment to test whether knowledge of image editing reduced effects ofthin-ideal media exposure among 124 college women. Exposure to thin-idealimages was compared with exposure to the same images plus a visual literacyintervention, or no exposure. Bissell’s intervention provided a definition ofdigital retouching and tagged images of swimsuit models with the followingdisclaimer: ‘‘The image below has been digitally manipulated to enhancethe model’s appearance’’ (Bissell, 2006, p. 6). Bissell had expected womenin the intervention condition to report a reduced desire to look like themodels in the photographs. However, the manipulation had the oppositeeffect: Women in that condition reported a greater desire to look like themodels and evaluated the models as thinner and more attractive than didwomen who saw the same photographs without the disclaimers.This outcome is both puzzling and compelling. Bissell (2006) reasonedthat perhaps the visual literacy manipulation was too weak or had beenoverlooked by participants. However, if that were the case, both groups
Downloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015Image Retouching and Adolescent Body Image139of women who had seen the photographs should have rated the modelsas similarly thin and attractive and reported similar levels of desire to looklike the models. The fact that the group that was told about the retouchingidealized the models even more calls into question the value of retouchingawareness in conferring protection against idealized images, and introducesthe possibility that this awareness produces a boomerang effect by somehowenhancing the desirability of the depicted images.The reasons for this boomerang effect are unclear. Bissell (2006) maximized ecological validity by using commercial media images and manipulated participants’ awareness that image editing had occurred but did notmanipulate the images themselves. As such, her visual literacy manipulationmay have worked through priming more than learning because thin-idealimages culled from publications are almost always retouched and assumed tobe so by adolescent and adult audiences (Wheeler, 2002). Bissell (2006) alsoused invariantly thin images (swimsuit models), so idealness was tethered tothinness in her experiment. Her work represents an essential first step towardunderstanding the effects of thinking about image editing while processingthin-ideal images. Still, questions remain about the effects of image editingoutside the context of exclusive thinness. Following social comparison theoryand supporting research, awareness of retouching might lead adolescents todiscount the photographed subjects as suitable comparison targets, resultingin diminished upward social comparison (Halliwell et al., 2011; Suls, 1977).On the other hand, the ‘‘boomerang effect’’ observed by Bissell (2006) mayoccur, for reasons still unknown. Thus, a research question was posed forthe present study:RQ1: Among adolescents exposed to retouched images, will those madeaware of the retouching report different levels of objectified bodyconsciousness and physical self-esteem than those not made awareof the retouching?Finally, we know that not all young people are affected equally byidealized images (Harrison, 2009). Those who consider the media an important source of information about being attractive, who compare theirown appearance to media images, and who feel pressured by the media toimprove their appearance are particularly vulnerable to decrements in bodysatisfaction following exposure to idealized images (Wilksch, Tiggemann, &Wade, 2006). The Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire(SATAQ-3; Thompson et al., 2004) measures these tendencies. Research onappearance-specific media literacy interventions aimed at reducing bodydissatisfaction among teen girls and boys points to the importance of determining vulnerability to ideal-body media influence via SATAQ-3 scores(Wilksch et al., 2006). Less approving sociocultural attitudes toward appearance may render appearance-ideal visual media less potent as factors
140K. Harrison and V. Hefnerinfluencing viewers’ evaluations of their own bodies. Thus, a second researchquestion was posed:RQ2: Will sociocultural attitudes toward appearance moderate the effect ofexposure to retouched (and retouched-aware) images?METHODDownloaded by [] at 08:36 02 June 2015Overview and ParticipantsThis study consisted of a survey and experiment involving the same participants: N D 463 adolescents (304 female, 159 male) completed the survey.Due to absences, a smaller number (N D 393; 263 female and 130 male) were
Most studies of ideal-body media effects on body image focus on the extreme thinness of the models, not their idealness. In modern media, this idealness is often created or maximized via digital image editing. This experiment tested the effects of image editing outside the research-typical context of exclusive thinness. Original
RETOUCHING Figure 6.30The final retouch Beauty Retouching When you mention retouching, people often think about the impossibly flawless high-fashion models and cover girls they see in magazines. In this type of photography, there is no real attempt to be realistic. Instead, photographers try to create a believable impossibility.
PHOTO RETOUCHING PAGE 3 OF 14 Intended use The retouching techniques you apply to an image depend in part on how the image will be used. Whether an image is intended for black-and-white publication on newsprint or for full-color Internet distribution will affect everything from the resolution of the initial scan to the type of tonal
Different from general-purpose photo retouching tasks, portrait photo retouching (PPR) has two special and practi-cal requirements: human-region priority (HRP) and tedre-gion in a portrait photo should have higher priority and be paid more attention. The first row of Figure 1(a) shows a
Retouching and other finishing techniques, including spot-ting and hand-coloring, have been used in photography since the advent of the medium. With the explosion of photo-graphic enlargements in the 1920s, these practices gained new momentum, as flaws were more prominent in the larger prints. Retouching materials marketed for photographic
There are many books, articles and web based tutorials on the art of retouching the human skin. In general, most of these deal with the concept that skin colors all fall within a given range based on the race of the subject. While this is a generalized concept, it is difficult to apply this idea to skin retouching in a realistic manner.
Adobe Photoshop 7.0 Restoration & Retouching Tutorials Supplemental information for the book Photoshop Restoration & Retouching by Katrin Eismann Document 1: The Healing Brush A fundamental introduction to working with the Healing brush 1. What is the Healing brush & how does it work? 2. What isn’t the Healing Brush? 3.
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