Sri Lanka’s Rehabilitation Program: A New Frontier In .
Sri Lanka’s RehabilitationProgram: A New Frontierin Counter Terrorism andCounter InsurgencyBy Malkanthi HettiarachchiThe Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam (LTTE), sometimes referred to as the Tamil Tigers, or simplythe Tigers, was a separatist militant organization based in northern Sri Lanka. It was foundedin May 1976 by Prabhakaran and waged a violent secessionist and nationalist campaign tocreate an independent state in the north and east of Sri Lanka for the Tamil people. This campaignevolved into the Sri Lankan Civil War.1 The Tigers were considered one of the most ruthless insurgentand terrorist organisations in the world.2 They were vanquished by the Sri Lankan armed forces in May2009.3 In order to rehabilitate the 11,6644 Tigers who had surrendered or been taken captive, Sri Lankadeveloped a multifaceted program to engage and transform the violent attitudes and behaviours ofthe Tiger leaders, members and collaborators. 5 Since the end of the LTTE’s three-decade campaign ofinsurgency and terrorism, there has not been a single act of terrorism in the country. Many attributeSri Lanka’s post-conflict stability to the success of the insurgent and terrorist rehabilitation program.Globally, rehabilitation and community engagement is a new frontier in the fight against ideological extremism and its violent manifestations – terrorism and insurgency.6 Following a periodof captivity or imprisonment, insurgents and terrorists are released back into society. Without theirdisengagement and de-radicalization, they will pose a continuing security threat. The recidivist willcarry out attacks and politicize, radicalize, and militarize the next generation of fighters. Furthermore,they will become a part of the insurgent and terrorist iconography. To break the cycle of violence,governments of countries that suffer from terrorism must build partnerships with communities andother stakeholders in maintaining peace and stability. Working with communities, the media, academiccircles, and the private sector, governments should invest time and energy into mainstreaming thethinking of those who have deviated into ideological extremism and violence.Malkanthi Hettiarachchi is a Clinical Psychologist who works in psychosocial skills training andrehabilitation within secure and community settings.PRISM 4,no .2From the field 105
HETTIARACHCHISri Lankan Rehabilitation Program inContext: Global Rehabilitation ProgramsAs every conflict differs, there is no commontemplate applicable to all rehabilitation programs. Nevertheless, there are some commonprinciples of rehabilitation. Rehabilitation isabout changing the thinking and behaviour ofoffenders. Prior to the reintegration of formerterrorists into mainstream society, offenders mustmove away from violent extremist thinking. If therather than adopting the classic retributivejustice model, Sri Lanka embraced therestorative justice modelmindset is locked into an ideology of intoleranceand violence against another ethnic or religiouscommunity, strategies must focus on changingtheir thinking patterns. In order to facilitate ashift within the offender, to a non-violent lifestyle, the violence justifying thought patternsmust be identified, as well as the mechanismsthat introduced, nurtured, and reinforced thesethought patterns. To facilitate this transformationof thinking, genuine and continuous engagementis required in both the custodial rehabilitationand community rehabilitation phases.7Global rehabilitation programs can be characterized as developed, developing, and defunctprograms. The most developed programs areoperating in Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malaysiaand Sri Lanka. The developing programs are inIraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Colombia, whiledefunct programs are in Egypt, Yemen, and Libya.8Although publicizing their model as uniquely SriLankan, the program benefited from drawing practical lessons and applicable concepts from existingrehabilitation programs. For example, the conceptand term “beneficiary,” used in Saudi Arabia torefer to terrorists undergoing rehabilitation, was106 From the fieldrecommended by Singapore to visiting Sri Lankanofficials, who adopted it and subsequently sharedit with Pakistani counterparts. 9In the process of creating a program thatwas applicable to Sri Lanka, existing global programs in Asia, Africa, and Latin America werereviewed. Through emphasizing national ownership, the rehabilitation staff and advisors helpedto indigenise the best practices of other programs.Singapore’s rehabilitation model, considered oneof the best global programs with its large numberof psychologists and religious counsellors, wasparticularly instructive. The six modes of rehabilitation developed in the Singapore rehabilitation program were indigenized, adapted, anddeveloped to a high standard in Sri Lanka. Thefounders of the Sri Lankan rehabilitation program named it the “6 1 model.” It consists ofthe following modes of rehabilitation and community al and creative therapies4.Social, cultural, and family5.Spiritual and religious6.Recreational 1: Community rehabilitationRehabilitation Program in Sri LankaThe Sri Lankan spirit itself was conducive forembracing rehabilitation. Rather than adoptingthe classic retributive justice model, Sri Lankaembraced the restorative justice model.11 The thenAttorney General Mohan Peiris crafted the legalframework for rehabilitation. Sri Lanka drew fromits own rich heritage of moderation, toleration,and coexistence – communities in Sri Lanka havelived side by side for centuries.12 Sri Lanka alsohas a history of rehabilitating violent youth afterthe insurrections in the south in 1971 and 19871989. Sri Lanka’s first experience in rehabilitationPRISM 4,no .2
Photo by Indi Samarajiva on FlickrSRI LANKA’S REHABILITATION PROGRAM53 former LTTE cadres were married in Vavuniya. They are being moved to family houses, but still kept in therehabilitation program.was after security forces defeated the PeoplesLiberation Front (Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna),a vicious Marxist-Leninist group that adoptedMaoist tactics, in 1971. Although the programswere not as robust as the contemporary program,there was hardly any recidivism among the participants.13 After a period of incarceration, the statedid not oppose and at times facilitated the re-entryof some of the key players of Janatha VimukthiPeramuna into the political mainstream.The Bureau of the Commissioner Generalof Rehabilitation (BCGR) was founded asthe special state authority responsible for thePRISM 4,no .2rehabilitation and reintegration program following the defeat of LTTE in 2009. Even beforethe fighting ended in May 2009, the BCGR managed rehabilitation centers in Ambepussa inthe south, and Thelippale in the north for Tigercaptives.14 These centers were named ProtectiveAccommodation and Rehabilitation Centers(PARCs), accommodating nearly 11,500 cadresthat either surrendered or where identified whilemasquerading as Internally Displaced Persons(IDPs) at the end of the conflict.Approximately 254 staff15 work within SriLankan rehabilitation centers, attending to theFrom the field 107
HETTIARACHCHIwelfare requirements of the beneficiaries as wellas facilitating the rehabilitative input providedby several agencies. This figure does not includesecurity staff dedicated to perimeter security.The Sri Lankan Government has spent USD9,136,37016 to manage rehabilitation centers.The amount spent annually fluctuates based onthe number of beneficiaries within the system,and does not include the costs associated withcomplementary efforts of individual “specialistprograms,” charities, national non-governmentalorganizations, international and local non-governmental organizations, government institutions, ministries and well-wishers.The rehabilitation process was aimed atreintegrating the former LTTE leaders, members,and collaborators into the community. Duringthe process, beneficiaries within the PARCs weresupported to engage in a range of activities andthrough these activities reconnect to all aspects ofindividual and communal life, including familial,social, cultural, and religious. The beneficiarieswere supported to shift their thinking away fromthe narrow hate-filled ideology targeted towardsthe Sinhalese, Muslims, and national and international figures that opposed the LTTE agenda.Upon reflection on their actions and experiences,the former terrorists and insurgents found newmeaning in their lives. They were transformedinto champions of peace with values of moderation, toleration, and co-existence replacing hate,anger, and the mono-ethnic single narrative.17The majority of the beneficiaries were reintegrated within the 24-month mandated periodand as of November 2012 approximately 11,04418beneficiaries had been reintegrated. 594 childbeneficiaries19 were reintegrated within the stipulated one-year rehabilitation period for children. The reintegration of students, the disabled,and the aged were prioritised, and the BCGRengaged the community to enlist their support108 From the fieldfor rehabilitation. As of November 2012, theBCGR remains responsible for the rehabilitationof approximately 800 remaining beneficiaries.The government faced many challenges.Although the public in the south, which hadbeen targeted and suffered from LTTE terrorism,supported rehabilitation, northerners shunnedthe return of the rehabilitated terrorists intotheir midst. In the North, the LTTE had forciblyrecruited children, extorted funds, and induceduntold suffering on civilian populations, whichearned the resentment and anger of northernfamilies. In the last phases of the fight, the LTTEleft their village bases and took nearly 300,000Tamil civilians as hostage. They were the sonsand daughters of the northern Tamil communityand this suffering made the northerners reject theformer LTTE cadres and their separatist ideology.The BCGR encouraged contact with the community through visits, letters, and phone contact,among other means. Furthermore, the reintegration ceremonies – the transfer of the beneficiaryback to their families and communities – wereconducted publicly with community participation. After organizing a mass marriage ceremonyof fifty-three former LTTE cadres, the BCGR organized for the couples to live within a speciallybuilt peace village.20 Responsibility for guiding,mentoring, and mainstreaming former cadres wasgradually transferred to their local communities.As the state itself lacked sufficient funds, theSri Lankan private sector played a role in supporting both custodial rehabilitation and communityreintegration. Sri Lankan blue chip companies21supported vocational training to build skills andlater employ former LTTE cadres. A number ofinternational organizations and non-governmental organizations, notably the InternationalOrganization of Migrants (IOM), which hadaccess to the rehabilitation centers, also assistedand advised the government.22PRISM 4,no .2
SRI LANKA’S REHABILITATION PROGRAMCategorization of the DetaineesModes of RehabilitationThe rehabilitation phase was aimed at workingtowards the successful reintegration of the beneficiaries through reconciliation and resettlement.The first step in the process was to categorize thesurrendered and apprehended insurgents andterrorists. Utilizing interviews and backgroundinformation, law enforcement authorities andintelligence agencies categorized former insurgents based on their depth of involvement,period of involvement, and activities conductedduring involvement. They were labeled as high,medium, or low risk, and allocated to detentionand PARCs accordingly. Assessing the risk level ofthe detainees enabled the state to categorize theminto A, B, C, D, E, and F groups.23Serious insurgents were categorized intothe A and B groups. They were frontline leadersand members. These prisoners were allocatedto detention and not rehabilitation, and forcedto go through a judicial process. Following thefindings of the investigation and assessments ofthe detainees’ levels of cooperation, and basedon those findings, the detainees were offered theoption of joining the rehabilitation process or thejudicial process. The moderate group (categoryC and D) were assessed and allocated to eitherdetention or to one of the twenty-four PARCs.The low risk group (category E and F) was allocated to the PARCs.A baseline survey was conducted to assessthe changing attitudes and opinions of thebeneficiaries. To determine their degree of radicalization, the survey results were assessedby University of Maryland psychologists ArieKruglanski and Michele Gelfand. There was asignificant decline in the levels of radicalizationfollowing the beginning of rehabilitation interventions and the way in which the staff interacted with the beneficiaries.24Six modes of rehabilitation were utilized at thePARCs: educational, vocational, spiritual, recreational, psychosocial, and familiar, social, andcultural.PRISM 4,no .2Educational rehabilitation: The TamilTigers recruited from a cross section of society,but mostly from poor and under-aged groups.Many of the terrorist cadres had either notcompleted their education or failed to achievethe country’s national standard of completingthe General Certificate of Education, OrdinaryLevel Examination (requiring ten years ofstudy). Given that one of the main aims ofthe rehabilitation program is education, theBCGR focused on promoting academic education. Between ten to twenty-five percent ofthe beneficiaries needed help with readingand writing in the Tamil language, and themajority spoke neither the national languageof Sri Lanka, Sinhalese, nor the link language,English.25 The rehabilitation program created aspace for providing formal education to thosebeneficiaries less than eighteen years of agewithin a residential school environment. Adultsupplementary education was provided foradults in need of literacy and numeracy skills.Informal education also took place in groupswithin each rehabilitation centre. Beneficiariesidentified as having teaching skills conductedinformal classes to facilitate learning to readand write Tamil, as well as to learn English,Sinhala, and math. Vocational rehabilitation: According tosurvey results, almost every ex-cadre was keento be employed. Follow-up surveys indicatedthat beneficiaries’ desire for vocational training and employment gradually increased astheir period in rehabilitation progressed.26 The From the field 109
HETTIARACHCHIBCGR therefore facilitated vocational training.Based on the beneficiaries’ interests, their families’ traditional vocations and businesses, andregional vocational opportunities, the beneficiaries were divided into centers for agriculture,carpentry, masonry, motor mechanics, beauty-culture, and the garment industry, amongothers. Members of the different industries’business communities were also involved inthe program and eventually pledged trainingand jobs in their factories to the cadres in rehabilitation. Forty-two vocational training programs were conducted within rehabilitationcenters and externally by Non-GovernmentalOrganizations (NGOs), International NGOs(INGOs), private businesses, state ministries,and volunteer organizations.27 The differentbusiness communities provided residentialfacilities for the beneficiaries to engage invocational training programs on-site withmainstream populations. The beneficiariesreceived all company benefits accessed by themainstream interns. The vocational trainingalso helped to gradually develop beneficiaryconfidence in using their own skills to carveout a livelihood instead of following orders.The beneficiaries were motivated to engagein vocational training that would help themsecure future financial stability and dignity byengaging in a vocation that would help themselves, their families, their communities, andtheir country.28 Spiritual rehabilitation: Throughout thecourse of rehabilitation, many beneficiarieswere faced with the realities of their actions.They felt the need to spiritually reconcile withtheir past and look forward to the future. TheBrahma Kumari spiritual group from Indiaconducted yoga and meditation for beneficiaries that relaxes the mind and nurtures ahealthy balance between inner and outer110 From the fieldworlds. The Goenka Vipassana program fromIndia provided, “mindfulness training.” Thistraining involves developing self-awareness ofemotions and thoughts.29 Those beneficiariestrained in mindfulness supported their peers topractice this method of meditation. Differentreligious organizations, including leaders fromthe Hindu, Satya Sai, and Christian traditions,also conducted religious ceremonies, rites, andrituals based on each person’s faith. Finally,praying and chanting constituted a large partof spiritual rehabilitation with each PARC constructing Hindu temples or kovils for prayer andfaith practice. Recreational rehabilitation: Most LTTEcadres put on weight during their period ofrehabilitation. It was therefore vital that all thebeneficiaries exercised both their minds andbodies. Cricket, volleyball, traditional sports,and other sports activities were conducted atevery centre on a daily basis. Specific sportsprograms conducted included “Cricket forChange,” regional athletic meets, inter-centercricket and netball matches, sports meets, andNew Year Festival activities. Board games suchas carom were also popular. Gardening was alsoconducted in small plots within the centers. Psychosocial rehabilitation: Enhancedinterpersonal interaction contributed to beneficiaries expanding their skills in relating andengaging with people at a social and community level. Beneficiaries were observed to haveundergone a significant transformation in theirattitudes and behavior towards the Sinhalese,Muslims, and security forces personnel overthe course of the first seven months of rehabilitation. This cognitive transformation appearsto have taken place through informal interpersonal engagement with the center staff. Thebeneficiaries built an excellent rapport withthe staff and engaged in meaningful discussionPRISM 4,no .2
SRI LANKA’S REHABILITATION PROGRAMrelated to the future and desire to build peace.The thinking espoused was that there are nowinners and losers in war but tragic loss of lifeon every side. Beneficiaries focused on howthey can now build a life for themselves.Having the opportunity to share theirthoughts with the staff, the interpersonalinteractional initiatives were a large part of therehabilitation program because they allowedbeneficiaries to engage in discussions cultivating their thinking in terms of family, future,and peace building. Less time was spent withthoughts of violence and hatred. Engaging indiscussion related to society, social responsibility, and contributing towards the economyhelped to cultivate a sense of citizenship.The BCGR conducted training sessionsfor their center staff on counseling andadvanced psychosocial skills training. Stafftraining sessions were conducted by a clinical psychologist, a counseling psychologist,counselors, therapists, a community mentalhealth worker and a psychology lecturer in thedifferent PARCs to build in-house capabilityfor counseling.The ongoing mentorship programs areessential to shift beneficiary thinking awayfrom violence and separatism. A group of successful and well-respected persons in the Tamilcommunity acted as mentors, reflecting a senseof responsibility and of a future that is achievable through unity rather than divisions. Theymotivated the beneficiaries to work hard andto build a successful future.30 These businesspeople, film stars, and athletes were testimonyto the ability of people from the region tomake a successful life with the opportunitiesavailable in Sri Lanka.Other psychosocial rehabilitation programs included Girl Guide and Boy Scoutprograms, creativity therapy programs, andPRISM 4,no .2art therapy. The Sri Lanka Girl Guides and
evolved into the Sri lankan Civil War. 1 the tigers were considered one of the most ruthless insurgent and terrorist organisations in the world. 2 they were vanquished by the Sri lankan armed forces in May 2009.3 In order to rehabilitate the 11,664 4 tigers who had surrendered or been taken captive, Sri l anka
Coastal Areas in Western Province, Sri lanka," Journal of Environmental Professionals Sri Lanka, vol. 3, 2014. [15] "Clean Air in Sri Lanka: Summary of progress on improving air qulity," Country Network Sri Lanka, 2008. [16] D. S. R. O. S. Lanka, national environmental act, No. 47 of 1980, Department of government printing, Sri Lanka, 2009.
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source of imports to Sri Lanka) while Sri Lanka's exports to India stood at 5.8% of overall exports of Sri Lanka (3rd largest destination of Sri Lankan exports) with total trade between the two countries amounting to US 4.2 billion. The ISFTA has made a substantial contribution in
4 Sri Lanka’s Rehabilitation Program: Sri Lanka’s Rehabilitation Program: The Humanitarian Mission Two Paper based on article by author to the PRISM Journal: M. Hettiarachchi, Sri Lanka’s Rehabilitation Program: A new frontier in counter terrorism and counter insurgency, PRISM Journal for complex operations, NDU, Vol 4, Issue 2, 2013.
Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy (University of Chicago Press 1991) 93-102. 7. Michael Roberts, ‘Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Sinhalese Perspectives: Barriers to Accommodation’ (1978) 12 (3) Modern Asian Studies 353. 8. Roshan de Silva Wijeyeratne, Nation, Constitutionalism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka
ber 2007; N 134, Sri Lanka’s Muslims: Ca ught in the Crossfire, 29 May 2007. For analysis of the nearly three-decade civil war and insurgency of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), see Crisis Group Asia Reports N 125, Sri Lanka: The Failure of the Peace Process, 28 November 2006, and N 191, War Crimes in Sri Lanka, 17 May 2010.
II. OVERVIEW OF SRI LANKA DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT 6 2.1 Summary 7 2.2 Sri Lanka’s performance in achieving the MDGs 8 2.3 Sri Lanka – Overview of the post-conflict political situation since 2009 10 2.4 Sri Lanka’s economic growth 13 2.4.1 Poverty and exclusion 13 2.4.2 Unemployment 14 2.
