Enhancing And Measuring Consumers' Motivation, Opportunity, And Ability .
Deborah J. Maclnnis, Christine Moorman, & Bernard J. JaworskiEnhancing and MeasuringConsumers' Motivation,Opportunity, and Abilityto Process Brand InformationFrom AdsConsiderable research suggests that advertising executional cues can influence communication effectiveness. Related research indicates that communication effectiveness is in part driven by consumers'motivation, opportunity, and ability (MOA) to process brand information from an ad. However, little research has explicitly linked executional cues to communication effectiveness via their impact on MOAand levels of processing. The authors present a framework that explicitly provides such a linkage. Theframework highlights the mediational role of MOA in the relationships among executional cues and communication outcomes, it also provides a theoretical account that links apparently disparate cues to theircommon effects on motivation, opportunity, or ability. The framework is complemented by a critical review of current measures of MOA and proposed measures based on the review. Research issues raisedby the framework and the proposed measures are discussed.UNDERSTANDING the myriad research findingson advertising executional cues presents a challenge to both academicians and practitioners. A recentconference at the Marketing Science Institute (1988a)revealed that practitioners often must make decisionsabout creating or modifying ad executional cues whilehaving little knowledge of the cues' likely impact onviewer processing. Recognizing this problem, MSIdesignated research on the relationship between advertising executional cues and viewer informationprocessing as a research priority (MSI 1988b).Deborah J. Maclnnis is Associate Professor of Marketing and BernardJ. Jaworski is Associate Professor of Marketing, Karl Eller GraduateSchool of Managenfient, University of Arizona. Christine Moorman isAssistant Professor of Marketing, Graduate School of Business, University of Wisconsin, Madison. The authors thank Roger Kerin, TomKinnear, Larry Percy, and three anonymous JM reviewers for their constructive comments on previous versions of the article.32 / Journal of Marketing, October 1991Petty and Cacioppo (1986; see also Maclnnis andJaworski 1989) identify two roles for advertising executional cues. One is to match executional cues toconsumers' information-processing levels. For example, when consumers are unlikely to deeply process brand information from an ad, the use of salientaffect-laden executional cues may have a positive effect on ad and brand attitudes. Conversely, when consumers do deeply process the advertised message, different cues (e.g., strong message arguments and cuesthat support the advertised message) lead to favorablebrand attitudes.A second role for advertising executional cues, andthe role explicitly examined here, is to enhance consumers' motivation, opportunity, and/or ability (MOA)to process information from an ad. This second roleis proactive, seeking to change the level of processingthrough the use of executional cues. Enhanced levelsof processing may be desirable for two reasons. First,the level of processing in the modal viewing contextJournal of MarketingVol. 55 (October 1991), 32-53
is likely to be modest given the low involvement nature of most advertising and the extent of clutter anddistraction in the typical communication context. Evenin "high involvement" purchase decisions, the levelof processing may be limited if consumers do not havesufficient ability to encode advertised information.Hence, increasing the level of processing is often animportant communication objective. Second, enhanced levels of processing evoke more enduring brandattitudes and memories, and hence are associated withmore effective and efficient communication outcomes.Though considerable research has linked executional cues to specific communication outcomes, littleresearch has directly examined the mediational impactof MOA on the relationships between executional cuesand communication effects. Such a linkage is important, as it (1) facilitates the organization and synthesisof much of the (heretofore) disparate research on executional cues, (2) provides a theoretical account forcategorizing executional cues as similar in their information-processing outcomes, (3) allows for theidentification of novel executional cues that have notbeen the subject of past research, and (4) identifiesimportant research questions about executional cuesand processing outcomes. Further study of the impactof executional cues on enhanced MOA and processingfrom ads requires measures of motivation, ability, andopportunity. Unfortunately, measures of those constructs are not well developed.strategy.' Ad design strategies consist of informationprocessing goals, executional strategies, and specificad cues (see Figure 2). The particular ad design strategy should be influenced by pre-exposure MOA levels.The purpose of our article is fourfold. First, wereview research on motivation, opportunity, and ability and their impact on brand information processingfrom ads. Second, we develop a conceptual framework that organizes executional cue research in termsof the cues' impact on motivation, ability, and opportunity, brand processing, and communication outcomes. Third, we identify key issues in measuringmotivation, opportunity, and ability. Finally, we discuss research issues linked to the framework and theproposed measures.The level of processing from ads influences outcomestypically associated with effective advertising. For example, as consumers achieve higher levels of processing, they attend to, elaborate on, and link togetherbrand information in the ad (e.g., the brand name withproduct claims). Such attention and processing enhances memory for key brand information such as thebrand name and product claims (Alba and Hutchinson1987; Anderson 1976; Beattie and Mitchell 1985; Lynchand Srull 1982; Saegert and Young 1982, 1983). Research also suggests that high processing levels produce more enduring, stable, and accessible brand attitudes (Berger and Mitchell 1989; Park and Mittal1985; Petty and Cacioppo 1986). Such attitudes mayfurther influence purchase intentions (Sheppard,Hartwick, and Warshaw 1988) and the likelihood ofcounterarguing against competitors' claims (Petty andCacioppo 1986).As enhanced brand memory and enduring, stable,and accessible brand attitudes are typically positivecommunication outcomes, one might conclude that itis always desirable to enhance brand processing fromThe Role of Motivation,Opportunity, and Abilityin Ad ProcessingFigure 1 indicates that certain communication outcomes are influenced by the extent of brand information processing from ads. Brand information processing is in turn influenced by consumers' motivation,opportunity, and ability levels. Though motivation,opportunity, and ability are present prior to ad exposure, their levels can be enhanced by ad designBrand Information ProcessingBrand information processing is defined as the extentto which consumers allocate attention and processingresources to comprehend and elaborate on brand information in an ad. "Brand information" is defined asany executional cue designed to communicate the advertised message. Brand information could be (1) information about the brand name, brand attributes,benefits, usage, users, and/or usage situation, (2)cognitive (e.g., attribute-based) or affective (e.g.,emotional), and (3) delivered in either verbal (spokenor written words, songs with words) or nonverbal (e.g.,pictures, music without words) modalities. Severallevels of brand information processing may be invoked in a given exposure context (see Greenwald andLeavitt 1984; Maclnnis and Jaworski 1989; Mitchell1981). For example, though little attention is devotedto the ad at very low levels of brand processing, athigher levels attention is directed fully toward the adand processing capacity is sufficient for consumers togenerate cognitive responses (Petty and Cacioppo 1979;Woodside 1983) to the message.Communication Outcomes'The arrow from communication outcomes to the information-processing goal indicates that post-exposure feedback serves as input tosubsequent ad design.Consumers' Ability to Process Brand Information From Ads / 3 3
FIGURE 1The Role of Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability in Brand Information Processing From AdsPRE-EXPOSURELEVELSAD rtunityPROCESSINGRELATED yads. However, processing level affects the strengthand enduring nature of memories and brand attitudes,not their valence. Whether greater levels of processing produce favorable brand attitudes and memory depends on the extent to which ad content is regardedas strong and compelling (Petty and Cacioppo 1986;Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann 1983) and whetherthe audience is in favor of or against the position advocated in the ad (Petty and Cacioppo 1986; Rossiterand Percy 1987). If the message is compelling and thetarget audience is not adamantly opposed to the message, achieving high levels of brand processing is desirable.Motivation, Opportunity, and AbilityThe level of processing from ads is influenced by consumers' motivation, ability, and opportunity to process brand information during or immediately after adexposure. Motivation has been defined as goal-directedarousal (Park and Mittal 1985). In the current context,the goal is restricted to the processing of brand information. Thus, motivation is defined as consumers'desire or readiness to process brand information in anad. That view is consistent with recent definitions suchas readiness (Bumkrant 1976; Bumkrant and Sawyer1983; Moorman 1990), willingness (Roberts andMaccoby 1973), interest (Celsi and Olson 1988), anddesire (Petty and Cacioppo 1986) to process information in a persuasive communications context. Thoughslightly different, those terms each suggest heightenedarousal to process external stimuli such as brand in-34 / Journal of Marketing, October 1991ProcessingMotivationCOMMUNICATIONOUTCOMESBrand Attitude Stability Accessibility StrengthLevels ofBrandInformationProcessingBrand Learningand MemoryProcessingAbility Brand Name Product Claimsformation. High motivation implies that consumersare willing to allocate processing resources to brandinformation in an ad.Opportunity is defined here as the extent to whichdistractions or limited exposure time affect consumers' attention to brand information in an ad. Highopportunity implies that the amount of attention allocated to brand information is not impeded. The focus on distraction and limited exposure time is consistent with other discussions of opportunity (Batra andRay 1986; Petty, Wells, and Brock 1976; Wright 1980).However, unlike other authors (Batra and Ray 1986;Festinger and Maccoby 1964; Osterhouse and Brock1970; Petty, Wells, and Brock 1976; Roberts andMaccoby 1973; Wright 1980), we do not define lackof opportunity in terms of the disruption of cognitiveresponses. Our position is that distraction refers to thedrawing of attention from one stimulus to another(Webster's 1987), not the outcomes that may stem fromallocated attention.Ability refers to consumers' skills or proficienciesin interpreting brand information in an ad. The availability and accessibility of brand-relevant knowledgestructures provide the foundation for processing ability. Hence, high ability implies that prior knowledgenecessary to interpret brand information is present and Batra and Ray (1985, 1986), however, define motivation in termsof the personal relevance of the message to the audience. The abovecited researchers generally view personal relevance as an antecedentto motivation as opposed to motivation itself.
is accessed (Alba and Hutchinson 1987; Sujan 1985).Figure 1 indicates that motivation, ability, and opportunity can be evaluated before ad exposure (preexposure MOA levels) or after ad exposure (post-exposure MOA levels). Pre-exposure MOA levels areinfluenced by consumer characteristics or situationalcharacteristics (see Alwitt and Mitchell 1985). Postexposure MOA levels are influenced by those factorsand by ad executional cues.Enhancing MOA Through AdExecutional CuesFigure 2 is a conceptual framework explicitly linkingspecific advertising executional cues to enhanced MOAand subsequent levels of processing. The frameworkidentifies a set of key information-processing goals thatcan be established to enhance motivation, opportunity, and/or ability levels. The information-processing goals, in turn, can be achieved by means of several specific executional cue strategies consistent withthe general information-processing goal (see Figure2). The information-processing goals and executionalcue strategies uniquely associated with consumers'MOA levels are described next.Enhancing Processing MotivationWhen motivation to process brand information is low,attention is voluntarily allocated to stimuli other thanthe brand or ad. The information-processing goal appropriate in this situation thus involves first attractingattention to the ad and subsequently increasing brandinformation processing within the ad (see Figure 2).Several executional cue strategies may enhance attention to the ad.Enhancing Attention to ttie AdAppeals to intrinsic hedonic needs. Consumers tendto attend to stimuli that make them feel good (Isen etal. 1982). Hence, one class of executional cues achievetheir effects by appealing to hedonic needs (Holbrookand Hirschman 1982). Sexual sources and appetite appeals are among such executional cues. Evidence supporting their attentional effects is relatively clear. Forexample, studies have found ads using sexual (vs.nonsexual) sources create more attention to the ad(Baker 1961), create greater interest in the commercial (Bello, Pitts, and Etzel 1983; Severn, Belch, andBelch 1990), evoke more thoughts about the ad execution (Severn, Belch, and Belch 1990), and achievehigher ad recognition (Reid and Soley 1981) and'Our use of the term "executional cue" includes all manipulatableaspects of ads. We therefore include such elements as appeals, cuesthemselves (e.g., sources), and cue characteristics (e.g., source credibility).product recall (Richmond and Hartman 1982; Tinkhamand Reid 1988). Though less has been done on theattention-getting properties of sensory appeals, Stewartand Furse (1986) found higher levels of attention toads that used such appeals. Therefore:Pj: The greater the use of cues that appeal to hedonic needs,the greater consumers' motivation to attend to the ad.Other factors that are likely to automatically enhance attention to the ad are novelty, complexity, andfigurality (Beriyne 1960; Fiske and Taylor 1984;Me Arthur 1981).Novel stimuli. Novelty in ads can appear in manyforms. A stimulus is absolutely novel if consumershave never before been exposed to it. Relative noveltyis present if consumers are exposed to familiar stimulinot observed in the recent past. Several novelty-relatedstrategies are used to enhance attention, such as unusual cinematography (Alsop 1988), different commercial formats (e.g., 8- vs. 30-second commercials),and large numbers of scenes in an ad. Anderson andLevin (1976) and Thorson and Zhao (1988) found thatnovel aspects of commercials such as sudden voicechanges, sudden silence, and movement increase adrecall. Bumkrant and Unnava (1987) found greaterbrand recall when consumers were exposed to threevariations of the same ad versus the same ad threetimes. Unfortunately, novelty may be short-lived, ascommercial repetition (Rethans, Swasy, and Marks1986) and "me-too" advertising reduce novelty perceptions. However, available evidence suggests that:P2: The greater the use of novel executional cues, the greaterconsumers' motivation to attend to the ad.Figural/prominent stimuli. Figural and prominent stimuli stand out in the larger ad context. Forexample, loud music and action in ads capture andhold attention (Hanssens and Weitz 1980). Gardner(1983) found attribute information made prominent byits presence in the headline and copy enhanced brandprocessing, which in turn influenced attribute beliefs,attitudes, and memory.Both experimental (Bryce and Olney 1988; Childersand Houston 1984; Kisielius and Stemthal 1984;Krober-Riel 1979; Lutz and Lutz 1977; Paivio 1971;Shepard 1967) and field research (Starch, undated) indicates a strong impact of pictures on attention, elaboration, and memory. Only Finn (1988) has not foundevidence for such an effect. The pictorial superiorityeffect may be explained partly by the fact that picturesare often the most prominent part of ads.A picture's size also affects its prominence. Several studies indicate that illustration size consistentlyinfluences Starch "seen" scores for industrial (Hanssensand Weitz 1980) and consumer print ads (Diamond1968; Finn 1988; see also Holbrook and LehmannConsumers' Ability to Process Brand Information From Ads / 35
FIGURE 2Conceptual Framework: Enhancing Consumers' Motivation, Opportunity, and Abilityto Process Brand Information From Ads1. MOTIVATIONInformationProcessing Goala. Enhance Motivation to Attend to the Adb. Enhance Motivation to Process Brand Information11iiiExecutionalCue StrategyAppeal toIntrinsicHedonic NeedsUse Novel Stimuli1Use Figural/ProminentCuesEnhance AdComplexityiEnhance Relevanceof Brand to SelfExecutionalCues Sexual Sources Appetite Appeals' "UnusualCinematography.Different AdFormats.Large Number ofScenes.Changes in Voice,Silence, andMovement Loud Music.Action-AttributeInformation inHeadline. Pictures.Picture Size. A d Size. Color. CelebrityEndorsers ComplexPictures.Edits andf- , "". RhetoricalQuestions. Similar Sources. Dramas.Fear Appeals4iillEnhance Curiosityabout the Brand11. Open with Suspense/surprise. IncongruentCues.Humor. Metaphors. Lack of Information in AdII. OPPORTUNITYInfornnationProcessing Goala. Enhance Encoding Opportunitiesb. Reduce Processing Time1ExecutionalCue StrategyIncrease Use of RedundantBrand InformationControl Presentation ofBrand InformationExecutionalCues. Repeat Brand Information(same/different modality). Repeat Key Scenes. Repeat Ad11. Print Media. Longer Messages. Non-time Compressed Ad. Dead Ti me11Create Gestalt Processing. Pictures. Interactive ImagesIII. ABILITYInformationProcessing Goala Access Relevant/Related Knowledge StructuresExecutionalCue StrategyProvide a ContextExecutionalCues.Verbal Framing. Advance Organizers11980). Moreover, the size of the ad itself influencesad prominence and consequent attention to the ad (Finn1988).Another predictor of prominence is color. ThoughChilders and Houston (1984) found no effects for coloron memory. Chute (1979) found that viewers looklonger at colored than at black and white pictures. Thisphenomenon is confirmed by Starch scores, whichconsistently show higher attention scores for color ads(Starch undated; Finn 1988). Recent research also hasshown greater ad recall for color than for black andwhite ads (Beattie and Mitchell 1985).Finally, certain characteristics of sources can standout as prominent in an ad. One such characteristic isthe use of celebrity sources. Friedman and Friedman(1979) propose that celebrities in ads should enhancead recall. Mapes and Ross (cited by Ogilvy andRaphaelson 1982) reported a 22% increase in ad recallfor ads using celebrities, and Petty, Cacioppo, and3 6 / Journal of Marketing, October 1991b. Create New Knowledge StructuresExemplar-Based Learning. Concrete Examples and Copy. Demonstrations.AnalogiesSchumann (1983) found that celebrity sources enhanced product recall. Atkin and Block (1983) foundhigher reported interest in commercials that used celebrity sources than in ones that did not. In general,research suggests that:P3: The greater the use of figural/prominent executionalcues, the greater consumers' motivation to attend tothe ad.Complexity. According to Berlyne (1960), complexity is a function of (1) the number of distinguishable elements in the stimulus, (2) the dissimilaritybetween elements, and (3) the degree to which combinations of stimulus elements are responded to asseparate (vs. as a unit). Some researchers have foundsignificantly longer looking times for visually complex than for simple ads (Morrison and Dainoff 1972).Others report that complex pictures influence picturememory (Fleming and Shekhian 1972). Lang and
Lanfear (1990) identify several studies showing thatcomplexity achieved through cinematographic techniques such as edits and cuts increases attention to anad. Schleuder (1990) found that complexity in ads enhanced attention to the ads and memory for an unknown political candidate. Cox and Cox (1988) further found that complex ads wear out more slowly thando simple ads. Hence:P4: The more complex the array of executional cues in anad, the greater consumers' motivation to attend to thead.Increasing Processing of Brand informationWhereas the preceding executional cues can increasemotivation to attend to the ad, other cues enhance motivation to process brand information within the ad bystimulating (1) thoughts about the relationship of theproduct/brand and the self or (2) curiosity about thebrand.Enhance the relevance of the brand to the self.Research has shown consistently that information perceived as self-relevant (vs. nonrelevant) elicits voluntary attention (Bettman 1979; Chaiken 1980; Mitchell1981; Petty and Cacioppo 1979, 1986; Petty, Cacioppo,and Goldman 1981; Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann1983) and is processed more extensively (Kendzierski1980; Kennan and Baillet 1980). This effect is thoughtto occur because the richness of the conceptual structures pertaining to the self facilitates cognitive andemotional elaboration.As Figure 2 indicates, a variety of executional cuescan enhance the relevance of the brand to the self.First, rhetorical questions generally ask the readers tothink for themselves about a question posed about thebrand. Research supports the notion that consumersfocus more attention on and generate more cognitiveresponses to an ad argument posed rhetorically thanto the same statement posed declaratively (Bumkrantand Howard 1984; Petty et al. 1986; Swasy and Munch1985)."Second, sources similar to the reader/viewer whoproclaim the brand's benefits capture attention(Anderson 1985), encourage deeper levels of processing, and promote vicarious emotional responsesbecause consumers often perceive substantial goalcongruity between a similar source and the self(Hoffman 1977; Rossiter and Percy 1983). Third, dramas in which brand benefits are illustrated in the form"Note that this effect occurs only when processing MOA is low.Several researchers have found that when motivation (e.g., involvement) is high, rhetorical questions interfere with message processing,resulting in reduced argument recall (Munch and Swasy 1988; see alsoPetty, Cacioppo, and Goldman 1981; Swasy and Munch 1985). Also,this research has not demonstrated empirically that rhetorical questions generate more support arguments because the questions highlightthe brand's self-relevance.of a story (Wells 1988) may stimulate brand processing by drawing the viewer into the ad and evokingempathic identification with the actors in the ad(Deighton, Romer, and McQueen 1989). Fourth, fearappeals may enhance self-relevance by getting theviewer to consider the negative consequences that maybefall the self as a result of product use, misuse, ornonuse. However, evidence about the impact of fearappeals on processing is limited as most research onfear examines the effect of fear on persuasion, notprocessing (see Belch, Villarreal, and Belch 1985;Gelb, Wong, and Zinkhan 1985; Stemthal and Craig1974). Collectively, the work cited suggests:P5: The greater the use of cues that enhance the relevanceof the brand to the self, the greater consumers' motivation to process brand information from ads.Enhance curiosity about the brand. Cues that evokecuriosity are perceived as "interesting" and lead todeeper levels of processing (Hastie 1980; Lynch andSmll 1982). Consequently, one strategy for enhancingmotivation to process brand information is to use executional cues that enhance curiosity about the brand.Stewart and Furse (1986), for example, reported moreattention to ads that open with a surprise or suspense.Relatedly, Myers-Levy and Tybout (1989) found greatermessage processing when consumers were shown attribute information incongruent with their schema forthe product category (i.e., an "all natural" soda).Houston, Childers, and Heckler (1987) reported enhanced product category and brand name memory whenan interactive picture and its associated copy conveyed information about different as opposed to thesame attributes. Sujan (1985), however, found that adinformation incongruent with schematic expectationsinfluenced elaborative processing only when abilitywas high (e.g., for expert consumers). The nature ofincongruity, its effects on processing motivation, andthe contingencies under which processing is enhancedthus warrant greater attention.Empirical research (Madden and Weinberger 1982)as well as managerial judgment (Madden andWeinberger 1984) suggests humor may stimulate attention, evoke greater message processing (Lammerset al. 1983; Madden and Weinberger 1982), and enhance message comprehension (Duncan, Nelson, andFrontczak 1984). Ads can be humorous in many ways(e.g., exaggeration, parody, etc.), one of which is bypresenting the brand in situations regarded as unexpected or surprising. Unfortunately, research has notconfirmed that the positive effects of humor are dueto the surprise value of brand information in the ad.Metaphors, statements that involve an unexpectedrelationship between two objects rarely compared, havebeen hypothesized to enhance processing motivation(Ward and Gaidis 1990). Gray and Snyder (1989) foundConsumers' Ability to Process Brand Information From Ads / 3 7
that copy containing metaphors improved free and cuedrecall of brand names. Ward and Gaidis (1990) identify research indicating longer reading and processingtimes for metaphors than for literal statements.Finally, curiosity stimulated by lack of information in an ad may enhance processing motivation. Forexample, Severn, Belch, and Belch (1990) found moreproduct and message thoughts and fewer executionrelated thoughts when the message contained high levels(approximately 50 words) versus low levels (approximately 14 words) of information. Collectively, thework cited suggests that:Pj: The greater the use of cues designed to elicit curiosityabout the brand, the greater consumers' motivation toprocess brand information in the ad.Enhancing Processing OpportunityWhen processing opportunity is low, either achievedprocessing levels are interrupted because processingbecomes distracted or processing levels are limitedbecause information cannot remain in memory longenough for higher levels of brand processing to occur.In such situations, the information-processing goalsshould be to (1) enhance encoding opportunities withinthe ad itself or (2) reduce the needed processing time.Enhancing Encoding OpportunitiesFigure 2 indicates two strategies for enhancing encoding opportunities, (1) increase the redundancy ofand/or (2) control the presentation of brand information.Enhance redundancy of brand information. Cuesare redundant to the extent that they present the sameinformation several times. Redundancy has severalimplications for enhanced processing opportunity. First,redundant information provides more chances for encoding brand information and reduces the likelihoodthat consumers will become distracted by irrelevantcues. Second, redundant information primes the redundant cue in working memory, which in turn enhances the speed and accuracy of recognizing the cueon subsequent presentations (Feustel, Shiffrin, andSalasoo 1983). Finally, the encoding of redundant information implies that relevant information is presentfor longer periods in memory (Kieras 1978), enhancing the likelihood that it will be stored and retrievedfrom memory.Within a given modality such as the spoken word,the same brand-relevant cue can appear repeatedly inan ad. Though little research has examined the effectof redundancy of a cue on message processing,Maclnnis (1988) found that providing redundant information about a brand attribute throughout an ad enhanced consumers' comprehension of the advertisedmessage. Similarly, Lautman and Dean (1983) foundthat stating product attributes twice had a marginal effect on consumers' recall of the message.38 / Journal of Marketing, October 1991Cues also can be redundant across modalities. Forexample, an ad can portray a given benefit visuallyand describe it verbally. Reese (1984) found enhancedmemory for televised news when information on audio and video tracks was redundant. In addition, research indicates performance on a divided-attentiontask is enhanced if the modality used to process onetask such as the ad differs from the modality used toprocess another task (i.e., carrying on a conversationwhile watching a TV commercial) (AUport, Antonis,and Reynolds 1972; Glass, Holyoak, and Santa 1979;Treisman and Davies 1973). Thus, if consumers areengaged in a visually oriented secondary task and thead provides verbal and visually redundant information, there is increased likelihood that consumers willencode the verbally oriented material in the ad.Processing opportunity is enhanced also by repetition of key scenes within the ad (Liu 1986) and repetition of the ad itself. Krugman (1973) argues thatseveral repetitions of an ad are necessary to providesufficient brand-processing opportunity. Consistent withthis notion, repetition in ads has been associated withgreater levels of cognitive responding (Belch 1982;Petty and Cacioppo 1979, 1980), more enduring brand/ad attitudes, greater brand and message recall(Schumann 1983), hig
Opportunity, and Ability in Ad Processing Figure 1 indicates that certain communication out-comes are influenced by the extent of brand infor-mation processing from ads. Brand information pro-cessing is in turn influenced by consumers' motivation, opportunity, and ability levels. Though motivation, opportunity, and ability are present prior to .
Motivational Interviewing: Enhancing Motivation to Change Strategies Author: Carol Dawson-Rose Subject: Motivational Interviewing: Enhancing Motivation to Change Strategies Keywords: Motivational Interviewing: Enhancing Motivation to Change Strategies Created Date: 5/14/2015 11:06:55 AM
The motivation structure analysis will be based on the general knowledge of the theory of motivation, together with the analysis of the employees’ motivation profiles. The fundamental tool used in this process is a cluster analysis and its usage in the creation of motivation programs. The analysis of motivation factors and their order will be
ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION IN THE PROFESSIONAL ENVIRONMENT. For our study and for a better understanding of the relationship professional identity-motivation, we considered relevant the presentation of aspects regarding motivation, be it economical or professional. 3.1 Economic motivation . The financial motivation is based on financial stimulus.
motivation for all of their daily activities - including reading! Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation: behavior that is driven by internal rewards. Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation that arises from within the individual because the activity is naturally satisfying to him/her. Examples of intrinsic .
Secondary audiences include prevention specialists, educators, and policymakers for SUD treatment and related services. Overall Key Messages . Motivation is key to substance use behavior change. Counselors can support clients’ movement toward positive changes in their substance use by identifying and enhancing motivation that already exists.
motivation scales for their research and classroom. The goals of this review were to identify a set of reading motivation student self-report scales used in research, examine the development and psychometric properties of each reading motivation scale, and compare scales on availability, reliability, age range, and motivation constructs measured.
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The Being a Writer program combines a writing process approach with guided instruction to ensure students learn and practice the craft and conventions of writing. Every lesson operates in the context of a caring classroom community, crucial to motivating and inspiring students to grow as writers, thinkers, and principled people. The program is built on the assumption that academic and social .
