Microprocessor Types And Specifications
CHAPTER 3Microprocessor Typesand Specifications
36Chapter 3Microprocessor Types and SpecificationsPre-PC Microprocessor HistoryThe brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central processingunit (CPU). The CPU performs the system’s calculating and processing. The processor is often the mostexpensive single component in the system (although graphics card pricing now surpasses it in somecases); in higher-end systems it can cost up to four or more times more than the motherboard it plugsinto. Intel is generally credited with creating the first microprocessor in 1971 with the introductionof a chip called the 4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor market, at least for PCsystems, although over the years AMD has garnered a respectable market share. This means that allPC-compatible systems use either Intel processors or Intel-compatible processors from a handful ofcompetitors (such as AMD or VIA/Cyrix).Intel’s dominance in the processor market hadn’t always been assured. Although Intel is generally credited with inventing the processor and introducing the first one on the market, by the late 1970s thetwo most popular processors for personal computers were not from Intel (although one was a clone ofan Intel processor). Personal computers of that time primarily used the Z-80 by Zilog and the 6502 byMOS Technologies. The Z-80 was noted for being an improved and less expensive clone of the Intel8080 processor, similar to the way companies such as AMD, VIA/Cyrix, IDT, and Rise Technologieshave cloned Intel’s Pentium processors. In the Z-80 case, though, the clone had become far more popular than the original. Some might argue that AMD has achieved that type of status over the past yearor so, but even though they have made significant gains, Intel still controls the PC processor market.Back then I had a system containing both of those processors, consisting of a 1MHz (yes, that’s 1, asin one megahertz!) 6502-based Apple II system with a Microsoft Softcard (Z-80 card) plugged into oneof the slots. The Softcard contained a 2MHz Z-80 processor. This enabled me to run software for bothprocessors on the one system. The Z-80 was used in systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s that ranthe CP/M operating system, whereas the 6502 was best known for its use in the early Apple I and IIcomputers (before the Mac).The fate of both Intel and Microsoft was dramatically changed in 1981 when IBM introduced the IBMPC, which was based on a 4.77MHz Intel 8088 processor running the Microsoft Disk OperatingSystem (MS-DOS) 1.0. Since that fateful decision was made to use an Intel processor in the first PC,subsequent PC-compatible systems have used a series of Intel or Intel-compatible processors, witheach new one capable of running the software of the processor before it—from the 8088 to the current Pentium D/4/Celeron and Athlon XP/Athlon 64. The following sections cover the various typesof processor chips that have been used in personal computers since the first PC was introducedalmost two decades ago. These sections provide a great deal of technical detail about these chips andexplain why one type of CPU chip can do more work than another in a given period of time.Microprocessors from 1971 to the PresentIt is interesting to note that the microprocessor had existed for only 10 years prior to the creation ofthe PC! Intel invented the microprocessor in 1971; the PC was created by IBM in 1981. Now morethan 20 years later, we are still using systems based more or less on the design of that first PC. Theprocessors powering our PCs today are still backward compatible in many ways with the 8088 thatIBM selected for the first PC in 1981.November 15, 2001 marked the 30th anniversary of the microprocessor, and in those 30 years processorspeed has increased more than 18,500 times (from 0.108MHz to 2GHz). The story of the developmentof the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, can be read in Chapter 1, “Development of the PC.” The4004 was introduced on November 15, 1971 and originally ran at a clock speed of 108KHz (108,000cycles per second, or just over one-tenth a megahertz). The 4004 contained 2,300 transistors and wasbuilt on a 10-micron process. This means that each line, trace, or transistor could be spaced about 10microns (millionths of a meter) apart. Data was transferred 4 bits at a time, and the maximum addressable memory was only 640 bytes. The 4004 was designed for use in a calculator but proved to be useful
Microprocessors from 1971 to the PresentChapter 337for many other functions because of its inherent programmability. For example, the 4004 was used intraffic light controllers, blood analyzers, and even in the NASA Pioneer 10 deep space probe!In April 1972, Intel released the 8008 processor, which originally ran at a clock speed of 200KHz(0.2MHz). The 8008 processor contained 3,500 transistors and was built on the same 10-micron processas the previous processor. The big change in the 8008 was that it had an 8-bit data bus, which meant itcould move data 8 bits at a time—twice as much as the previous chip. It could also address more memory, up to 16KB. This chip was primarily used in dumb terminals and general-purpose calculators.The next chip in the lineup was the 8080, introduced in April 1974, running at a clock rate of 2MHz.Due mostly to the faster clock rate, the 8080 processor had 10 times the performance of the 8008. The8080 chip contained 6,000 transistors and was built on a 6-micron process. Similar to the previouschip, the 8080 had an 8-bit data bus, so it could transfer 8 bits of data at a time. The 8080 couldaddress up to 64KB of memory, significantly more than the previous chip.It was the 8080 that helped start the PC revolution because this was the processor chip used in whatis generally regarded as the first personal computer, the Altair 8800. The CP/M operating system waswritten for the 8080 chip, and Microsoft was founded and delivered its first product: Microsoft BASICfor the Altair. These initial tools provided the foundation for a revolution in software because thousands of programs were written to run on this platform.In fact, the 8080 became so popular that it was cloned. A company called Zilog formed in late 1975,joined by several ex-Intel 8080 engineers. In July 1976, it released the Z-80 processor, which was avastly improved version of the 8080. It was not pin compatible but instead combined functions suchas the memory interface and RAM refresh circuitry, which enabled cheaper and simpler systems to bedesigned. The Z-80 also incorporated a superset of 8080 instructions, meaning it could run all 8080programs. It also included new instructions and new internal registers, so software designed for theZ-80 would not necessarily run on the older 8080. The Z-80 ran initially at 2.5MHz (later versions ranup to 10MHz) and contained 8,500 transistors. The Z-80 could access 64KB of memory.RadioShack selected the Z-80 for the TRS-80 Model 1, its first PC. The chip also was the first to beused by many pioneering systems, including the Osborne and Kaypro machines. Other companies followed, and soon the Z-80 was the standard processor for systems running the CP/M operating systemand the popular software of the day.Intel released the 8085, its follow-up to the 8080, in March 1976. Even though it predated the Z-80 by several months, it never achieved the popularity of the Z-80 in personal computer systems. It was popular asan embedded controller, finding use in scales and other computerized equipment. The 8085 ran at 5MHzand contained 6,500 transistors. It was built on a 3-micron process and incorporated an 8-bit data bus.Along different architectural lines, MOS Technologies introduced the 6502 in 1976. This chip wasdesigned by several ex-Motorola engineers who had worked on Motorola’s first processor, the 6800.The 6502 was an 8-bit processor like the 8080, but it sold for around 25, whereas the 8080 costabout 300 when it was introduced. The price appealed to Steve Wozniak, who placed the chip in hisApple I and Apple II designs. The chip was also used in systems by Commodore and other systemmanufacturers. The 6502 and its successors were also used in game consoles, including the originalNintendo Entertainment System (NES) among others. Motorola went on to create the 68000 series,which became the basis for the Apple Macintosh line of computers. Today those systems use thePowerPC chip, also by Motorola and a successor to the 68000 series.All these previous chips set the stage for the first PC processors. Intel introduced the 8086 in June1978. The 8086 chip brought with it the original x86 instruction set that is still present in currentx86-compatible chips such as the Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon. A dramatic improvement over theprevious chips, the 8086 was a full 16-bit design with 16-bit internal registers and a 16-bit data bus.This meant that it could work on 16-bit numbers and data internally and also transfer 16 bits at atime in and out of the chip. The 8086 contained 29,000 transistors and initially ran at up to 5MHz.
38Chapter 3Microprocessor Types and SpecificationsThe chip also used 20-bit addressing, so it could directly address up to 1MB of memory. Although notdirectly backward compatible with the 8080, the 8086 instructions and language were very similarand enabled older programs to quickly be ported over to run. This later proved important to helpjumpstart the PC software revolution with recycled CP/M (8080) software.Although the 8086 was a great chip, it was expensive at the time and more importantly requiredexpensive 16-bit board designs and infrastructure to support it. To help bring costs down, in 1979Intel released what some called a crippled version of the 8086 called the 8088. The 8088 processor usedthe same internal core as the 8086, had the same 16-bit registers, and could address the same 1MB ofmemory, but the external data bus was reduced to 8 bits. This enabled support chips from the older8-bit 8085 to be used, and far less expensive boards and systems could be made. These reasons arewhy IBM chose the 8088 instead of the 8086 for the first PC.This decision would affect history in several ways. The 8088 was fully software compatible with the8086, so it could run 16-bit software. Also, because the instruction set was very similar to the previous8085 and 8080, programs written for those older chips could be quickly and easily modified to run. Thisenabled a large library of programs to be quickly released for the IBM PC, thus helping it become a success. The overwhelming blockbuster success of the IBM PC left in its wake the legacy of requiring backward compatibility with it. To maintain the momentum, Intel has pretty much been forced to maintainbackward compatibility with the 8088/8086 in most of the processors it has released since then.To date, backward compatibility has been maintained, but innovating and adding new features hasstill been possible. One major change in processors was the move from the 16-bit internal architectureof the 286 and earlier processors to the 32-bit internal architecture of the 386 and later chips, whichIntel calls IA-32 (Intel Architecture, 32-bit). Intel’s 32-bit architecture dates to 1985, and it took a full10 years for both a partial 32-bit mainstream OS (Windows 95) as well as a full 32-bit OS requiring 32bit drivers (Windows NT) to surface, and another 6 years for the mainstream to shift to a fully 32-bitenvironment for the OS and drivers (Windows XP). That’s a total of 16 years from the release of 32-bitcomputing hardware to the full adoption of 32-bit computing in the mainstream with supportingsoftware. I’m sure you can appreciate that 16 years is a lifetime in technology.Now we are in the midst of another major architectural jump, as Intel and AMD are in the process ofmoving from 32-bit to 64-bit computing for servers, desktop PCs, and even portable PCs. Intel hadintroduced the IA-64 (Intel Architecture, 64-bit) in the form of the Itanium and Itanium 2 processorsseveral years earlier, but this standard was something completely new and not an extension of theexisting 32-bit technology. IA-64 was first announced in 1994 as a CPU development project withIntel and HP (codenamed Merced), and the first technical details were made available in October1997. The result was the IA-64 architecture and Itanium chip, which was officially released in 2001.The fact that the IA-64 architecture is not an extension of IA-32 but is instead a whole new and completely different architecture is fine for non-PC environments such as servers (for which IA-64 wasdesigned), but the PC market has always hinged on backward compatibility. Even though emulatingIA-32 within IA-64 is possible, such emulation and support is slow.With the door now open, AMD seized this opportunity to develop 64-bit extensions to IA-32, which itcalls AMD64 (originally known as x86-64). Intel eventually released its own set of 64-bit extensions,which it calls EM64T or IA-32e mode. As it turns out, the Intel extensions are almost identical to theAMD extensions, meaning they are software compatible. It seems for the first time that Intel has unarguably followed AMD’s lead in the development of PC architecture.To make 64-bit computing a reality, 64-bit operating systems and 64-bit drivers are also needed.Microsoft began providing trial versions of Windows XP Professional x64 Edition (which supportsAMD64 and EM64T) in April 2005, and major computer vendors now offer systems with Windows XPProfessional x64 already installed. Major hardware vendors have also developed 64-bit drivers for current and recent hardware. Linux is also available in 64-bit–compatible versions, making the move to64-bit computing possible.
Processor SpecificationsChapter 339The latest development is the introduction of dual-core processors from both Intel and AMD. Dual-coreprocessors have two full CPU cores operating off of one CPU package—in essence enabling a singleprocessor to perform the work of two processors. Although dual-core processors don’t make games (whichuse single execution threads and are usually not run with other applications) play faster, dual-core processors, like multiple single-core processors, split up the workload caused by running multiple applications atthe same time. If you’ve ever tried to scan for viruses while checking email or running another application, you’ve probably seen how running multiple applications can bring even the fastest processor to itsknees. With dual-core processors available from both Intel and AMD, your ability to get more work donein less time by multitasking is greatly enhanced. Current dual-core processors also support AMD64 orEM64T 64-bit extensions, enabling you to enjoy both dual-core and 64-bit computing’s advantages.PCs have certainly come a long way. The original 8088 processor used in the first PC contained 29,000transistors and ran at 4.77MHz. The AMD Athlon 64FX has more than 105 million transistors, whilethe Pentium 4 670 (Prescott core) runs at 3.8GHz and has 169 million transistors thanks to its 2MB L2cache. Dual-core processors, which include two processor cores and cache memory in a single physicalchip, have even higher transistor counts: The Intel Pentium D processor has 230 million transistors,and the AMD Athlon 64 X2 includes over 233 million transistors. As dual-core processors and large L2caches continue to be used in more and more designs, look for transistor counts and real-world performance to continue to increase. And the progress doesn’t stop there because, according to Moore’s Law,processing speed and transistor counts are doubling every 1.5–2 years.Processor SpecificationsMany confusing specifications often are quoted in discussions of processors. The following sections discuss some of these specifications, including the data bus, address bus, and speed. The next sectionincludes a table that lists the specifications of virtually all PC processors.Processors can be identified by two main parameters: how wide they are and how fast they are. Thespeed of a processor is a fairly simple concept. Speed is counted in megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz(GHz), which means millions and billions, respectively, of cycles per second—and faster is better! Thewidth of a processor is a little more complicated to discuss because three main specifications in aprocessor are expressed in width. They are Data (I/O) bus Address bus Internal registersNote that the processor data bus is also called the front side bus (FSB), processor side bus (PSB), or justCPU bus. All these terms refer to the bus that is between the CPU and the main chipset component(North Bridge or Memory Controller Hub). Intel uses the FSB or PSB terminology, whereas AMD uses onlyFSB. Personally I usually just like to say “CPU bus” in conversation or when speaking during my trainingseminars because that is the least confusing of the terms while also being completely accurate.The number of bits a processor is designated can be confusing. All modern processors have 64-bit databuses; however, that does not mean they are classified as 64-bit processors. Processors such as thePentium 4 and Athlon XP are 32-bit processors because their internal registers are 32 bits wide,although their data I/O buses are 64 bits wide and their address buses are 36 bits wide (both wider thantheir predecessors, the Pentium and K6 processors). The Itanium series and the AMD Opteron andAthlon 64 are 64-bit processors because their internal registers are 64 bits wide.First, I’ll present some tables describing the differences in specifications between all the PC processors; thenthe following sections will explain the width and other specifications in more detail. Refer to these tables asyou read about the various processor specifications, and the information in the tables will become clearer.Tables 3.1–3.4 list the Intel processors, AMD processors, and alternative processors from other manufacturers.
40Table 3.1Chapter 3Microprocessor Types and SpecificationsIntel Processor ultiplier80883.080863.02861.5386SX1.5, 6MB386DX1.5, 1.01x5V32-bit32-bit4GB486SX1.0, 487SX1.01x5V32-bit32-bit4GB486DX1.0, GB486DX20.82x5V32-bit32-bit4GB486DX40.62x 3.3V32-bit32-bit4GB486 Pentium OD0.62.5x5V32-bit32-bit4GBPentium 60/660.81x5V32-bit64-bit4GBPentium 75-2000.6, 0.351.5x 3.3V–3.5V32-bit64-bit4GBPentium MMX0.35, 0.251.5x 1.8V–2.8V32-bit64-bit4GBPentium Pro0.352x 3.3V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium II (Klamath)0.353.5x 2.8V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium II (Deschutes)0.353.5x 2.0V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium II PE (Dixon)0.253.5x 1.6V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron (Covington)0.253.5x 1.8V–2.8V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron A (Mendocino)0.253.5x 1.5V–2V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron III (Coppermine)0.184.5x 1.5–1.75V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron III (Tualatin)0.139x 1.5V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium III (Katmai)0.254x 2.0–2.05V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium III (Coppermine)0.184x 1.6–1.75V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium III (Tualatin)0.138.5x 1.45V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron 4 (Willamette)0.184.25x 1.6V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium 4 (Willamette)0.183x 1.7V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium 4A (Northwood)0.134x 1.3V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium 4EE (Prestonia)0.138x 1.5V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium 4E (Prescott)0.098x 1.3V32-bit64-bit64GBCeleron D0.094x 1.25V–1.4V32-bit, 64-bit64-bit64GBPentium D (Smithfield)0.093.5x 1.25V–1.4V32-bit, 64-bit64-bit64GBPentium EE (Glenwood)Pentium M (Banias)0.090.134x2.25x 1.25V–1.4V0.8–1.5V32-bit, 64-bit32-bit64-bit64-bit64GB64GBPentium M (Dothan)0.094.25x 1–1.3V32-bit64-bit64GB
Processor SpecificationsChapter 341L1 CacheL2 CacheL3 CacheL2/L3CacheSpeed—————29,000June ‘79—————29,000June ‘78—————134,000Feb. ‘82MultimediaInstructionsNo. une ‘880KB1——Bus—855,000Oct. ‘90———Bus—275,000Oct. ‘858KB——Bus—1.185MApr. ‘918KB——Bus—1.185MApr. ‘948KB——Bus—1.2MApr. ‘918KB——Bus—1.2MApr. ‘898KB——Bus—1.4MNov. ‘928KB——Bus—1.2MMar. ‘9216KB——Bus—1.6MFeb. ‘942x16KB——Bus—3.1MJan. ‘952x8KB——Bus—3.1MMar. ‘932x8KB——Bus—3.3MMar. ‘942x16KB——BusMMX4.5MJan. ‘972x8KB256KB, 512KB, 1MB—Core3—5.5MNov. ‘952x16KB512KB—1/2 coreMMX7.5MMay ‘972x16KB512KB—1/2 coreMMX7.5MMay ‘972x16KB256KB—CoreMMX27.4MJan. ‘992x16KB0KB——MMX7.5MApr. ‘982x16KB128KB—CoreMMX19MAug. ‘982x16KB128KB—CoreSSE28.1MFeb. ‘002x16KB256KB—CoreSSE44M5Oct. ‘012x16KB512KB—1/2 coreSSE9.5MFeb. ‘992x16KB256KB—CoreSSE28.1MOct. ‘992x16KB512KB—CoreSSE44MJune ‘012x16KB128KB—CoreSSE242M6May ‘0212 8KB256KB—CoreSSE242MNov. ‘0012 8KB512KB—CoreSSE255MJan. ‘0212 8KB512KB2MBCoreSSE2178MNov. ‘0312 16KB1MB—CoreSSE3125MFeb. ‘0412 16KB256KB—CoreSSE3125MJune ‘0412 16KB (x2)1MB (x2)—CoreSSE3250MApr. ‘0512 16KB (x2)2x32KB1MB (x2)1MB——CoreCoreSSE3SSE2250M77MApr. ‘05Mar. ‘032x32KB2MB—CoreSSE2144MMay ‘044
42Table 3.2Chapter 3Microprocessor Types and SpecificationsAMD Processor dthMax.Memory1.5x 3.5V32-bit64-bit4GB2.5x 2.2–3.2V32-bit64-bit4GB2.5x CPUClockAMD K50.35AMD K60.35AMD K6-20.25AMD K6-30.253.5x 1.8–2.4V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon0.255x 1.6–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Duron0.185x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon (Thunderbird)0.185x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon XP (Palomino)0.185x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon XP(Thoroughbred)0.135x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon XP (Barton)0.135.5x 1.65V32-bit64-bit4GBAthlon 64 (ClawHammer/Winchester)0.13, 0.095.5x 1.5V64-bit64-bit1TBAthlon 64 FX(SledgeHammer)Athlon 64 X2 (Manchester)0.135.5x 1.5V64-bit128-bit1TB0.095x 1.35V–1.4V64-bit128-bit1TBAthlon 64 X2 (Toledo)0.095x 1.35V–1.4V64-bit128-bit1TB1. The 386SL contains an integral-cache controller, butthe cache memory must be provided outside the chip.Table 3.32. Intel later marketed SL Enhanced versions of the SX, DX,and DX2 processors. These processors were available inboth 5V and 3.3V versions and included power management capabilities.Intel/AMD Server/Workstation Processor ryPentium II Xeon (Deschutes)0.254x 2.8V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium III Xeon (Tanner)0.255x 2.0V32-bit64-bit64GBPentium IIIE Xeon (Cascades)0.184.5x 1.65V32-bit64-bit64GBXeon (Foster)0.183.5x 1.75V32-bit64-bit64GBXeon (Prestonia)0.134.5x 1.5V32-bit64-bit64GBItanium (Merced)0.183x 1.6V64-bit64-bit16TBItanium 2 (McKinley)0.183x 1.6V64-bit128-bit16TBItanium 2 (Madison)0.133x 1.6V64-bit128-bit16TBAMD Athlon MP (Palomino)0.185x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon MP (Thoroughbred)0.135x 1.5–1.8V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Athlon MP (Barton)0.135.5x 1.65V32-bit64-bit4GBAMD Opteron (SledgeHammer)0.133.5x 1.55V64-bit128-bit1TBAMD Opteron dual-core0.093.5x 1.3V64-bit128-bit1TB
Processor SpecificationsChapter 3L1 CacheL2 CacheL3 CacheL2/L3CacheSpeed16 8KB——Bus—4.3MMarch ‘962x32KB——BusMMX8.8MApril ‘972x32KB——Bus3DNow!9.3MMay ‘982x32KB256KB—Core3DNow!21.3MFeb. ‘992x64KB512KB—1/2–1/3coreEnh. 3DNow!22MJune ‘992x64KB64KB—Core3Enh. 3DNow!25MJune ‘00MultimediaInstructionsNo. ofTransistorsDateIntroduced2x64KB256KB—CoreEnh. 3DNow!37MJune ‘002x64KB256KB—Core3DNow! Pro37.5MOct. ‘012x64KB256KB—Core3DNow! Pro37.2MJune ‘022x64KB512KB—Core3DNow! Pro54.3MFeb. ‘032x64KB1MB—Core3DNow! Pro (SSE3for 0.09 process)105.9MSept. ‘032x64KB1MB—Core3DNow! Pro105.9MSept. ‘032x64KB (x2)1MB—CoreSSE3233.2MMay ‘052x64KB (x2)2MB—CoreSSE3233.2MMay ‘053. L2 cache runs at full-core speed but is contained in aseparate chip die.4. 128KB functional L2 cache (256KB total, 128KB disabled) uses the same die as the Pentium IIIE.435. 256KB functional L2 cache (512KB total, 256KBdisabled) uses the same die as the Pentium IIIB.6. 128KB functional L2 cache (256KB total, 128KBdisabled) uses the same die as the Pentium 4.L1 CacheL2 CacheL3 CacheL2/L3CacheSpeed2x16KB512KB, 1MB, 2MB—Core1MMX7.5MJune ‘982x16KB512KB, 1MB, 2MB—Core1SSE9.5MMar. ‘992x16KB256KB, 1MB, 2MB—CoreSSE28.1M, 84M,140MOct. ‘99, May ‘0012 8KB256KB—CoreSSE242MMay ‘0112 8KB512KB0MB, 1MB, 2MBCoreSSE2169MJan. ‘022x16KB96KB22MB, 4MBCoreMMX25MMay ‘012x16KB256KB1.5MB, 3MBCoreMMX221MJuly ‘022x16KB256KB1.5MB, 6MBCoreMMX410MJune ‘032x64KB256KB—Core3DNow! Pro37.5MJune ‘012x64KB256KB—Core3DNow! Pro37.2MAug. ‘022x64KB512KB—Core3DNow! Pro54.3MMay. ‘032x64KB1MB—Core3DNow! Pro105.9MApr. ‘032x64KB2MB—CoreSSE3233.2MApr. ‘05MultimediaInstructionsNo. ofTransistorsDateIntroduced
44Table 3.4Chapter 3Microprocessor Types and SpecificationsCyrix, NexGen, IDT, Rise, and VIA Processor dthMax.MemoryL1 Cache2x 2.5–3.5V32-bit64-bit4GB16KB2x 2.2–2.9V32-bit64-bit4GB64KB2.5x 2.2V32-bit64-bit4GB64KBProcessorCPUClockCyrix 6x86Cyrix 6x86MX/MIICyrix IIINexGen Nx5862x4V32-bit64-bit4GB2x16KBIDT Winchip3x 3.3–3.5V32-bit64-bit4GB2x32KBIDT Winchip2/2A2.33x 3.3–3.5V32-bit64-bit4GB2x32KBRise mP62x 2.8V32-bit64-bit4GB2x8KBVIA C336x 1.6V32-bit64-bit4GB64KBVIA C346x 1.35V32-bit64-bit4GB64KBVIA C355.5x 1.35V32-bit64-bit4GB64KBVIA C367.5x 1.4V32-bit64-bit4GB64KB1. L2 cache runs at full-core speed but is contained in aseparate chip die.2. The Itanium also includes an additional 2MB (150Mtransistors) or 4MB (300M transistors) of integrated oncartridge L3 cache running at full-core speed.Data I/O BusPerhaps the most important features of a processor are the speed and width of its external data bus.This defines the rate at which data can be moved into or out of the processor.The processor bus discussed most often is the external data bus—the bundle of wires (or pins) used tosend and receive data. The more signals that can be sent at the same time, the more data can be transmitted in a specified interval and, therefore, the faster (and wider) the bus. A wider data bus is like having a highway with more lanes, which enables greater throughput.Data in a computer is sent as digital information in which certain voltages or voltage transitions occurring within specific time intervals are used to represent data as 1s and 0s. The more wires you have, themore individual bits you can send in the same time interval. All modern processors from the originalPentium through the latest Pentium 4, Athlon XP, Athlon 64, and even the Itanium and Itanium 2have a 64-bit (8-byte) wide data bus. Therefore, they can transfer 64 bits of data at a time to and fromthe motherboard chipset or system memory.A good way to understand this flow of information is to consider a highway and the traffic it carries. If ahighway has only one lane for each direction of travel, only one car at a time can move in a certain direction. If you want to increase traffic flow, you can add another lane so that twice as many cars pass in a specified time. You can think of an 8-bit chip as being a single-lane highway because 1 byte flows through at atime. (1 byte equals 8 individual bits.) The 16-bit chip, with 2 bytes flowing at a time, resembles a two-lanehighway. You might have four lanes in each direction to move a large number of automobiles; this structurecorresponds to a 32-bit data bus, which has the capability to move 4 bytes of information at a time. Takingthis further, a 64-bit data bus is like having an 8-lane highway moving data in and out of the chip.Another ramification of the data bus in a chip is that the width of the data bus also defines the size ofa bank of memory. So, a processor with a 32-bit data bus (such as the 486) reads and writes memory 32bits at a time, whereas processors with a 64-bit data bus (most current processors) read and write memory 64 bits at a time.In 486 class systems, because standard 72-pin single inline memory modules (SIMMs) are only 32 bits wide,they must be installed one at a time in most 486 class systems. When used in 64-bit Pentium class systems,
Processor SpecificationsChapter 3L2 CacheL3 CacheL2/L3CacheSpeed——Bus—3MFeb. ‘96——BusMMX6.5MMay ‘97256KB—Core13DNow!22MFeb. ‘00——Bus—3.5MMar. ‘94——BusMMX5.4MOct. ‘97——Bus3DNow!5.9MSep. ‘98——BusMMX3.6MOct. ‘98128KB—BusMMX, 3DNow!15.2MMar. ‘01128KB—BusMMX, 3DNow!15.4MMar. ‘01128KB—BusMMX, 3DNow!15.5MSep. ‘01128KB—BusMMX, 3DNow!20.5MJan. ‘02MultimediaInstructionsNo. ofTransistorsDateIntroduced3. Samuel 2 core (improved version of Cyrix III core).4. Ezra core.455. Ezra-T core.6. Nehemiah core.they must be installed two at a time. The current module standard, dual inline memory modules (DIMMs),are 64 bits wide. So, they are normally installed one at a time, unless the system is designed or configuredfor dual-channel memory. Dual-channel memory reads and writes two banks simultaneously, as a way toimprove system performance, which means two DIMMs must be installed at a time. To improve memoryperformance, most future chipsets will support and eventually require that DIMM memory modules beinstalled in identical pairs.The Rambus inline memory modules (RIMMs) used in some older Pentium III and 4 systems are somewhat of an anomaly because they play by a different set of rules. They are typically only 16 or 32 bitswide. Depending on the module type and chipset, they are either used individually or in pairs. See “Memory Banks,” p. 512.Address BusThe address bus is the set of wires that carries the addressing information used to describe the memorylocation to which the data is being sent or from which the data is being retrieved. As with the data bus,each wire in an address bus carries a single bit of information. This single bit is a single digit in the address.The more wires (digits) used in calculating these addresses, the greater the total number of address locations. The size (or width) of the address bus indicates the maximum amount of RAM a chip can address.The highway analogy in the “Data I/O Bus” section can be used to show how the address
36 Chapter 3 Microprocessor Types and Specifications Pre-PC Microprocessor History The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central processing u
Microprocessor-Based System with Buses: Address, Data, and Control Microprocessor-based Systems Microprocessor ! The microprocessor (MPU) is a computing and logic device that executes binary instructions in a sequence stored in memory. ! Characteristics: " General purpo
A microprocessor which has n data lines is called an n-bit microprocessor i.e., the width of the data bus determines the size of the microprocessor. Hence, an 8-bit microprocessor like 8085 can handle 8-bits of data at
different microprocessor knee types James H Campbell1, Phillip M Stevens1,2 and Shane R Wurdeman1,3 Abstract Introduction: Microprocessor knee analyses to date have been primarily limited to microprocessor knees as a cat-egory rather than comparisons across different models. The purpose of the current analysis was to compare outcomes
A microprocessor is a programmable electronics chip that has computing and decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit of a computer. Any microprocessor-based systems having limited number of resources are called microcomputers. Nowadays, microprocessor can be seen in almost all types of electronics devices like mobile phones,
1 Introduction to Microcomputer Microcomputer architecture, organization and its operation. Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller. 1 [1] Lecture Notes Introduction to Microprocessor Evolution of Microprocessor, General Architecture, system bus 2 [1] [2] Lecture Notes 2 Functional units of Microprocessor
A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another. A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on those decisions. There may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor
The common way of categorizing microprocessor is by the number bits that their ALU can work with, at a time. Over time, five standard data widths have evolved for microprocessors: 4-bit, 8-bit, 16bit, 32-bit, 64-bit. Like,8-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 8-bit number at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 8-bit.
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