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Section 24Energy Resources, Conversion,and Utilization*Walter F. Podolski, Ph.D. Chemical Engineer, Electrochemical Technology Program,Argonne National Laboratory; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section Editor)David K. Schmalzer, Ph.D., P.E. Fossil Energy Program Manager, Argonne NationalLaboratory; Member, American Chemical Society, American Institute of Chemical Engineers(Fuels, Liquid Petroleum Fuels, Gaseous Fuels)Vincent Conrad, Ph.D. Group Leader, Technical Services Development, CONSOLEnergy Inc.; Member, Spectroscopy Society of Pittsburgh, Society for Analytical Chemistry ofPittsburgh, Society for Applied Spectroscopy. (Solid Fuels)Douglas E. Lowenhaupt, M.S. Group Leader, Coke Laboratory, CONSOL EnergyInc.; Member, American Society for Testing and Materials, Iron and Steel Making Society, International Committee for Coal Petrology (Solid Fuels)Richard A. Winschel, B.S. Director, Research Services, CONSOL Energy Inc.; Member,American Chemical Society, Technical Committee of the Coal Utilization Research Council(Solid Fuels)Edgar B. Klunder, Ph.D. Project Manager, National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S.Department of Energy (Coal Conversion)Howard G. McIlvried III, Ph.D. Consulting Engineer, Science Applications International Corporation, National Energy Technology Laboratory (Coal Conversion)Massood Ramezan, Ph.D., P.E. Program Manager, Science Applications InternationalCorporation, National Energy Technology Laboratory (Coal Conversion)Gary J. Stiegel, P.E., M.S. Technology Manager, National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy (Coal Conversion)Rameshwar D. Srivastava, Ph.D. Principal Engineer, Science Applications International Corporation, National Energy Technology Laboratory (Coal Conversion)John Winslow, M.S. Technology Manager, National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S.Department of Energy (Coal Conversion)Peter J. Loftus, D.Phil. Principal, ENVIRON International Corp.; Member, AmericanSociety of Mechanical Engineers (Heat Generation, Thermal Energy Conversion and Utilization, Energy Recovery)*The contributions of the late Dr. Shelby A. Miller and Dr. John D. Bacha to the seventh edition are gratefully acknowledged.24-1Copyright 2008, 1997, 1984, 1973, 1963, 1950, 1941, 1934 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
24-2ENERGY RESOURCES, CONVERSION, AND UTILIZATIONCharles E. Benson, M.Eng. Principal, ENVIRON International Corp.; Treasurer,American Flame Research Committee; Member, Combustion Institute (Heat Generation,Thermal Energy Conversion and Utilization, Energy Recovery)John M. Wheeldon, Ph.D. Electric Power Research Institute (Fluidized-Bed Combustion)Michael Krumpelt, Ph.D. Manager, Fuel Cell Technology, Argonne National Laboratory;Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Electrochemical Society (Electrochemical Energy Conversion)(Francis) Lee Smith, Ph.D., M.Eng. Principal, Wilcrest Consulting Associates, Houston,Texas; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Society of American Value Engineers,Water Environment Federation, Air and Waste Management Association (Energy Recovery,Economizers, Turbine Inlet Cooling)INTRODUCTIONFUELSResources and Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Solid Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Liquid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Liquid Petroleum Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nonpetroleum Liquid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gaseous Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Liquefied Petroleum Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Other Gaseous Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fuel and Energy Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Coal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Coal Gasification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Coal Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1224-1224-1224-1224-16HEAT GENERATIONCombustion Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Pollutant Formation and Control in Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Combustion of Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Suspension Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fuel-Bed Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Comparison of Suspension and Fuel-Bed Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fluidized-Bed Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Combustion of Liquid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Atomizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Combustion of Gaseous Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gas Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3224-33THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSIONAND UTILIZATIONBoilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Boiler Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24-3524-36Utility Steam Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Industrial Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fluidized-Bed Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Process Heating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Direct-Fired Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Indirect-Fired Equipment (Fired Heaters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Industrial Furnaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Source of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Function and Process Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Furnace Atmosphere and Mode of Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cogeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Typical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324-4424-45ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY CONVERSIONFuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fuel Cell Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Types of Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24-4524-4524-4624-4624-47ENERGY RECOVERYEconomizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Acid Dew Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Water Dew Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Boiler Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Conventional Economizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Condensing Economizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Regenerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Checkerbrick Regenerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ljungstrom Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Regenerative Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Miscellaneous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Recuperators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Turbine Inlet (Air) Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Evaporative Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Refrigeration Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Thermal Energy Storage (TES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524-5624-5624-5624-5624-5624-5724-57
Nomenclature and UnitsDefinitionSI unitsU.S. CustomarySystem unitsAcEEf̂F G HikKPQRsTUVZArea specific resistanceHeat capacityActivation energyElectrical potentialFugacityFaraday constantFree energy of reactionHeat of reactionCurrent densityRate constantLatent heat of vaporizationPressureHeating valueGas constantRelative densityTemperatureFuel utilizationMolar gas volumeCompressibility factorΩ/m2J/(kg K)J/molVkPaC/molJ/molJ/molA/m2g/(h cm3)kJ/kgkPakJ/kgJ/mol u/(lb F)Btu/lb molVpsiaC/lb molBtu/lb molBtu/lb molA/ft2lb/(h ft3)Btu/lbpsiaBtu/lbBtu/lb mol RDimensionless Fpercentft3/lb molDimensionlessεEnergy conversion efficiencySymbolGreek SymbolPercentPercentAcronyms and Unit tmospheric fluidized bed combustionalkaline fuel cellAdvanced Gas Conversion ProcessBritish Gas and Lurgi processcost of electricityChar Oil Energy Development ProcessU.S. Department of EnergyExxon Donor Solvent Processfluidized bed combustionhydrogenated anthracene oilhydrogenated phenanthrene oilHydrocarbon Research, Inc.Hydrocarbon Technologies, Inc.integrated gasification combined-cycleKellogg-Rust-Westinghouse processmolten carbonate fuel cellmethanol-to-gasoline processonce-through Fischer-Tropsch processphosphoric acid fuel cellpulverized coalpolymer electrolyte fuel cellpressurized fluidized bed combustion1015 BtuSouth African operation of synthetic fuels plantsShell Middle Distillate Synthesis Processsynthetic natural gassolid oxide fuel cellsolvent-refined coalINTRODUCTIONGENERAL REFERENCES: Loftness, Energy Handbook, 2d ed., Van NostrandReinhold, New York, 1984. Energy Information Administration, Emissions ofGreenhouse Gases in the United States 2003, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/EIA0573 (2004). Howes and Fainberg (eds.), The Energy Source Book, AmericanInstitute of Physics, New York, 1991. Johansson, Kelly, Reddy, and Williams(eds.), Burnham (exec. ed.), Renewable Energy—Sources for Fuels and Electricity, Island Press, Washington, 1993. Turner, Energy Management Handbook5th ed., The Fairmont Press, Lilburn, Ga., 2004. National Energy Policy,National Energy Policy Development Group, Washington, May 2001.Energy is usually defined as the capacity to do work. Nature providesus with numerous sources of energy, some difficult to utilize efficiently (e.g., solar radiation and wind energy), others more concentrated or energy dense and therefore easier to utilize (e.g., fossilfuels). Energy sources can be classified also as renewable (solar andnonsolar) and nonrenewable. Renewable energy resources are derivedin a number of ways: gravitational forces of the sun and moon, whichcreate the tides; the rotation of the earth combined with solar energy,which generates the currents in the ocean and the winds; the decay ofradioactive minerals and the interior heat of the earth, which providegeothermal energy; photosynthetic production of organic matter; andthe direct heat of the sun. These energy sources are called renewablebecause they are either continuously replenished or, for all practicalpurposes, are inexhaustible.Nonrenewable energy sources include the fossil fuels (natural gas,petroleum, shale oil, coal, and peat) as well as uranium. Fossil fuelsare both energy dense and widespread, and much of the world’sindustrial, utility, and transportation sectors rely on the energy contained in them. Concerns over global warming notwithstanding, fossil fuels will remain the dominant fuel form for the foreseeablefuture. This is so for two reasons: (1) the development and deployment of new technologies able to utilize renewable energy sourcessuch as solar, wind, and biomass are uneconomic at present, in mostpart owing to the diffuse or intermittent nature of the sources; and(2) concerns persist over storage and/or disposal of spent nuclear fueland nuclear proliferation.Fossil fuels, therefore, remain the focus of this section; their principal use is in the generation of heat and electricity in the industrial,utility, and commercial sectors, and in the generation of shaft powerin transportation. The material in this section deals primarily with theconversion of the chemical energy contained in fossil fuels to heatand electricity. Material from Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th ed., Sec. 27, has been updated and condensed. Recentimprovements in materials and manufacturing methods have broughtfuel cells closer to being economic for stationary and transportationpower generation, but additional advances are required for broadadoption.24-3
24-4ENERGY RESOURCES, CONVERSION, AND UTILIZATIONFUELSRESOURCES AND RESERVESSOLID FUELSProven worldwide energy resources are large. The largest remainingknown reserves of crude oil, used mainly for producing transportationfuels, are located in the Middle East, along the equator, and in the former Soviet Union. U.S. proven oil reserves currently account for onlyabout 3 percent of the world’s total. Large reserves of natural gas exist inthe former Soviet Union and the Middle East. Coal is the most abundant fuel on earth and the primary fuel for electricity in the UnitedStates, which has the largest proven reserves. Annual world consumption of energy is still currently less than 1 percent of combined worldreserves of fossil fuels. The resources and reserves of the principal fossil fuels in the United States—coal, petroleum, and natural gas—follow.CoalZJ*FuelProven roleumNatural 21.21.6*ZJ 1021 J. (To convert to 1018 Btu, multiply by 0.948.)The energy content of fossil fuels in commonly measured quantities isas follows.Energy contentBituminous and anthracite coalLignite and subbituminous coalCrude oilNatural-gas liquidsNatural gas26 106 Btu/US ton20 106 Btu/US ton5.8 106 Btu/bbl3.8 106 Btu/bbl1032 Btu/ft330.2 MJ/kg23.2 MJ/kg38.5 MJ/L25.2 MJ/L38.4 MJ/m31 bbl 42 US gal 159 L 0.159 m3TABLE 24-1GENERAL REFERENCES: Lowry (ed.), Chemistry of Coal Utilization, Wiley,New York, 1945; suppl. vol., 1963; 2d suppl. vol., Elliott (ed.), 1981. Van Krevelen, Coal, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1961. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, sec. 5,ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pa., 2004. Methods of Analyzing andTesting Coal and Coke, U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin, 638, 1967.Origin Coal originated from the arrested decay of the remains oftrees, bushes, ferns, mosses, vines, and other forms of plant life, whichflourished in huge swamps and bogs many millions of years ago duringprolonged periods of humid, tropical climate and abundant rainfall.The precursor of coal was peat, which was formed by bacterial
Turner, Energy Management Handbook 5th ed., The Fairmont Press, Lilburn, Ga., 2004. National Energy Policy, National Energy Policy Development Group, Washington, May 2001. Energy is usually defined as the capacity to do work. Nature provides us with numerous sources of energy, some difficult to utilize effi-ciently (e.g., solar radiation and wind energy), others more concen- trated or energy .
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LEFT FORK LEG RIGHT FORK LEG. 3 MNTIN INSTRTINS Öhlins Front Fork kit assembly 60206-03 21907-03 00338-83 60005-39 21906-03 21903-01 00338-42 7: 04752-04 . This page intentionally left blank. This page intentionally left blank. Öhlins sia o. Ltd 700/937 Moo5, Tambol Nongkhaga, mphur Phantong, honburi Province
