6 INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING6INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTSThere are many types of compression members, the column being the best known. Topchords of trusses, bracing members and compression flanges of built up beams and rolledbeams are all examples of compression elements. Columns are usually thought of asstraight vertical members whose lengths are considerably greater than their crosssectional dimensions. An initially straight strut or column, compressed by graduallyincreasing equal and opposite axial forces at the ends is considered first. Columns andstruts are termed “long” or “short” depending on their proneness to buckling. If the strutis “short”, the applied forces will cause a compressive strain, which results in theshortening of the strut in the direction of the applied forces. Under incremental loading,this shortening continues until the column "squashes". However, if the strut is “long”,similar axial shortening is observed only at the initial stages of incremental loading.Thereafter, as the applied forces are increased in magnitude, the strut becomes “unstable”and develops a deformation in a direction normal to the loading axis. (See Fig.1). Thestrut is in a “buckled” state.Buckling behaviour is thus characterized by deformations developed in a direction (orplane) normal to that of the loading that produces it. When the applied loading isincreased, the buckling deformation also increases. Buckling occurs mainly in memberssubjected to compressive forces. If the member has high bending stiffness, its bucklingresistance is high. Also, when the member length is increased, the buckling resistance isdecreased. Thus the buckling resistance is high when the member is “stocky” (i.e. themember has a high bending stiffness and is short) conversely, the buckling resistance islow when the member is “slender”.Structural steel has high yield strength and ultimate strength compared with otherconstruction materials. Hence compression members made of steel tend to be slender.Buckling is of particular interest while employing steel members, which tend to beslender, compared with reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete compressionmembers. Members fabricated from steel plating or sheeting and subjected tocompressive stresses also experience local buckling of the plate elements. This chapterintroduces buckling in the context of axially compressed struts and identifies the factorsgoverning the buckling behaviour. The local buckling of thin flanges/webs is notconsidered at this stage. These concepts are developed further in a subsequent chapter. Copyright reservedVersion II6-1
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGA “short” column failsby compression yieldδBuckled shapeFig 1: “short” vs “long” columnsA “long” column failsby predominant bucklingVersion II6-2
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING2.0 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF AN IDEAL COLUMN OR STRUT WITH PINNEDENDTo begin with, we will consider the elastic behaviour of an idealized, pin-ended, uniformstrut. The classical Euler analysis of this problem makes the following assumptions. the material of which the strut is made is homogeneous and linearly elastic (i.e. itobeys Hooke’s Law).the strut is perfectly straight and there are no imperfections.the loading is applied at the centroid of the cross section at the ends.PcrλyxBPcrFig. 2 Column BucklingWe will assume that the member is able to bend about one of the principal axes. (SeeFig. 2). Initially, the strut will remain straight for all values of P, but at a particular valueP Pcr, it buckles. Let the buckling deformation at a section distant x from the end B bey.The bending moment at this section Pcr.yThe differential equation governing the small buckling deformation is given by EId2y Pcr . ydx 2The general solution for this differential equation isPPcr B1 sin x crEIEIwhere A1 and A2 are constants.y A1 cos xSince y 0 when x 0, A1 0.Version II6-3
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGwhen x λ, y 0;Pcr 0EIHence B1 sin λEither B1 0 or sin λPcr 0EIB1 0 means y 0 for all values of x (i.e. the column remains straight).PAlternatively sin λ cr 0EIThis equation is satisfied only whenλPcr 0 , π , 2π ,.EIPcr π 2 EI 4 π 2 EI,λ2λ2.n 2π 2 EIλ2where n is any integer.9π 2 EIλ29P π EI λ2 2Unstable buckling modes4π EIλ2241All values aboveπ 2 EIλ2are unstableπ 2 EIλ2δFig. 3 Buckling load Vs Lateral deflection RelationshipWhile there are several buckling modes corresponding to n 1, 2, 3, , the lowest stablebuckling mode corresponds to n 1. (See Fig. 3).Version II6-4
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGThe lowest value of the critical load (i.e. the load causing buckling) is given byPcr π 2 EI(1)λ2Thus the Euler buckling analysis for a " straight" strut, will lead to the followingconclusions:1. The strut can remain straight for all values of P.2. Under incremental loading, when P reaches a value of Pcr π 2 EIλ2the strut can buckle in the shape of a half-sine wave; the amplitude of thisbuckling deflection is indeterminate.223. At higher values of the loads given by n π EI other sinusoidal buckledλ2shapes (n half waves) are possible. However, it is possible to show that thecolumn will be in unstable equilibrium for all values of P π 2 EIλ2whether it be straight or buckled. This means that the slightest disturbancewill cause the column to deflect away from its original position. ElasticInstability may be defined in general terms as a condition in which thestructure has no tendency to return to its initial position when slightlydisturbed, even when the material is assumed to have an infinitely largeyield stress. ThusPcr π 2 EI( 2)λ2represents the maximum load that the strut can usefully support.It is often convenient to study the onset of elastic buckling in terms of the mean appliedcompressive stress (rather than the force). The mean compressive stress at buckling,σcr ,is given byσ crPcr π 2 EI AAλ2where A area of cross section of the strut.If r radius of gyration of the cross section, then I Ar2,Hence, σ cr Version IIπ 2E r2λ2π 2Eπ 2E 2(λ / r ) 2λ(3)6-5
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGwhere λ the slenderness ratio of the column defined by λ λ / rThe equation σcr (π2E)/λ2, implies that the critical stress of a column is inverselyproportional to the square of the slenderness ratio of the column (see Fig. 4).σcrElastic buckling stress(σcr) defined by (π2E/ λ2)(Mpa)λ λ/rFig. 4 Euler buckling relation between σcr and λ3.0 STRENGTH CURVE FOR AN IDEAL STRUTWe will assume that the stress-strain relationship of the material of the column is definedby Fig. 5. A strut under compression can therefore resist only a maximum force given byfy.A, when plastic squashing failure would occur by the plastic yielding of the entire crosssection; this means that the stress at failure of a column can never exceed fy , shown byA-A1 in Fig. 6(a).σ(Mpa)fyYield plateauεyεFig. 5 Idealized elastic-plastic relationship for steel π 2E From Fig. 4, it is obvious that the column would fail by buckling at a stress given by 2 λ Version II6-6
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGB1σf(Mpa)fyPlastic yield definedby σf fyA′Elastic buckling (σcr)defined by π2E/ λ2CABλcλ λ/rFig. 6(a) Strength curve for an axially loaded initially straight pin-ended columnσf /fyPlastic yieldElastic buckling1.01.0λ (fy/σcr)1/2Fig. 6(b) Strength curve in a non-dimensional formThis is indicated by B-B1 in Fig. 6(a), which combines the two types of behaviour justdescribed. The two curves intersect at C. Obviously the column will fail when the axialcompressive stress equals or exceeds the values defined by ACB. In the region AC, wherethe slenderness values are low, the column fails by yielding. In the region CB, the failurewill be triggered by buckling. The changeover from yielding to buckling failure occurs atthe point C, defined by a slenderness ratio given by λc and is evaluated fromπ 2Efy 2λcλc πEfy(5)Plots of the type Fig. 6(a) are sometimes presented in a non-dimensional form illustratedin Fig. 6(b). Here (σf / f y) is plotted against a generalized slenderness given byVersion II6-7
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGλ λλ cf y / σ cr(6)This single plot can be employed to define the strength of all axially loaded, initiallystraight columns irrespective of their E and fy values. The change over from plastic yieldto elastic critical buckling failure occurs whenλ 1 (i.e. when fy σcr), the λ corresponding slenderness ratio is π r Efy4.0 STRENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS IN PRACTICEThe highly idealized straight form assumed for the struts considered so far cannot beachieved in practice. Members are never perfectly straight; they can never be loadedexactly at the centroid of the cross section. Deviations from the ideal elastic plasticbehaviour defined by Fig. 5 are encountered due to strain hardening at high strains andthe absence of clearly defined yield point. Moreover, residual stresses locked-in duringthe process of rolling also provide an added complexity.Thus the three components, which contribute to a reduction in the actual strength ofcolumns (compared with the predictions from the “ideal” column curve) are(i)(ii)(iii)initial imperfection or initial bow.Eccentricity of application of loads.Residual stresses locked into the cross section.4.1 The Effect of Initial Out-of-StraightnessPyxy0a0λFig. 7 Pin-ended strut withinitial imperfectionVersion II6-8
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGFig. 7 shows a pin-ended strut having an initial imperfection and acted upon by agradually increasing axial load. As soon as the load is applied, the member experiences abending moment at every cross section, which in turn causes a bending deformation. Forsimplicity of calculations, it is usual to assume the initial shape of the column defined byπx(7)y0 a0 sinλwhere ao is the maximum imperfection at the centre, where x λ / 2. Other initialshapes are, of course, possible, but the half sine-wave assumed above corresponding tothe lowest node shape, represents the greatest influence on the actual behaviour, hence isadequate.Provided the material remains elastic, it is possible to show that the applied force, P,enhances the initial deflection at every point along the length of the column by amultiplier factor, given1P1 (Pcr(8))The deflection will tend to infinity, as P is increased to Pcr as shown by curve-A, seeFig. 8(a).PIdeal bifurcation type bucklingPcrPp PyEffects of imperfection(elastic behaviour)Curve ADPfStrength(plastic unloading curve)Curve BCActual elastic-plastic responseO O1Initial imperfection (a0)δFig. 8(a) Theoretical and actual load deflectionresponse of a strut with initial imperfectionVersion II6-9
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGfyStress distribution at CMMfyStress distribution at DFig. 8(b) Stress distributions at C and DAs the deflection increases, the bending moment on the cross section of the columnincreases. The resulting bending stress, (M y/I), on the concave face of the column iscompressive and adds to the axial compressive force of P/A. As P is increased, the stresson the concave face reaches yield (fy). The load causing first yield [point C in Fig. 8 (a)]is designated as Py. The stress distribution across the column is shown in Fig. 8(b). Theapplied load (P) can be further increased thereby causing the zone of yielding to spreadacross the cross section, with the resulting deterioration in the bending stiffness ofthe column. Eventually the maximum load Pf is reached when the column collapses andthe corresponding stress distribution is seen in Fig. 8 (b). The extent of the post-firstyield load increase and the section plastification depends upon the slenderness ratio of thecolumn.Fig. 8(a) also shows the theoretical rigid plastic response curve B, drawn assumingPcr Pp (Note Pp A. fy). Quite obviously Pcr and Pp are upper bounds to the loads Pyand Pf. If the initial imperfection ao is small, Py can be expected to be close to Pf and Pp.If the column is stocky, Pcr will be very large, but Pp can be expected to be close Py. Ifthe column is slender, Pcr will be low and will often be lower than Pp or Py. In veryslender columns, collapse will be triggered by elastic buckling. Thus, for stockycolumns, the upper bound is Pp and for slender columns, Pcr .If a large number ofcolumns are tested to failure, and the data points representing the values of the meanstress at failure plotted against the slenderness (λ) values, the resulting lower bound curvewould be similar to the curve shown in Fig. 9.Version II6-10
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGPσf(Mpa)XXX XfyData from collapse tests(marked x)XXXXXX XXElastic buckling curveXXX XLower bound curveX X XPλ λ/rStrutFig 9: Strength curves for strut with initial imperfectionFor very stocky members, the initial out of straightness – which is more of a function oflength than of cross sectional dimensions – has a very negligible effect and the failure isby plastic squash load. For a very slender member, the lower bound curve is close to theelastic critical stress (σcr ) curve. At intermediate values of slenderness the effect ofinitial out of straightness is very marked and the lower bound curve is significantly belowthe fy line and σcr line.eσfP(Mpa)fyAxis ofthe columnDeflected shapeafter loadingXX XData from collapse testsX XX XElastic buckling curveXXXXXXXLower bound curveλPFig. 10 Strength curve for eccentrically loaded columnsVersion II6-11
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING4.2 The Effect of Eccentricity of Applied LoadingAs has already been pointed out, it is impossible to ensure that the load is applied at theexact centroid of the column. Fig. 10 shows a straight column with a small eccentricity(e) in the applied loading. The applied load (P) induces a bending moment (P.e) at everycross section. This would cause the column to deflect laterally, in a manner similar to theinitially deformed member discussed previously. Once again the greatest compressivestress will occur at the concave face of the column at a section midway along its length.The load-deflection response for purely elastic and elastic-plastic behaviour is similar tothose described in Fig. 8(a) except that the deflection is zero at zero load.The form of the lower bound strength curve obtained by allowing for eccentricity isshown in Fig. 10. The only difference between this curve and that given in Fig. 9 is thatthe load carrying capacity is reduced (for stocky members) even for low values of λ.4.2 The Effect of Residual StressAs a consequence of the differential heating and cooling in the rolling and formingprocesses, there will always be inherent residual stresses. A simple explanation for thisphenomenon follows. Consider a billet during the rolling process when it is shaped intoan I section. As the hot billet shown in Fig. 11(a) is passed successively through a seriesof rollers, the shapes shown in 11(b), (c) and (d) are gradually obtained. The outstands(b-b) cool off earlier, before the thicker inner elements (a-a) cool down.bbba abba aaa(a)b(b)(c)(d)Fig. 11 Various stages of rolling a steel girderAs one part of the cross section (b-b) cools off, it tends to shrink first but continues toremain an integral part of the rest of the cross section. Eventually the thicker element (a)also cool off and shrink. As these elements remain composite with the edge elements,the differential shrinkage induces compression at the outer edges (b). But as the crosssection is in equilibrium – these stresses have to be balanced by tensile stresses at innerlocation (a). The tensile stress can sometimes be very high and reach upto yield stress.The compressive stress induced due to this phenomenon is called “residual compressivestress” and the corresponding tensile stress is termed “ residual tensile stress”.Version II6-12
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGResidual stresses inwebResidual stresses inflangesResidual stresses distribution (no applied load)Residual stresses in anelastic section subjectedto a mean stress σa(net stress σa σr)Fig. 12 The influence of residual stressesStub column yieldswhen σa fyσa(Mpa)fyσrσpεavFig. 13 Mean axial stress vs mean axial strainin a stub column testVersion II6-13
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGConsider a short compression member (called a “stub column”, Fig. 12(a) having aresidual stress distribution as shown in Fig. 12 (b). When this cross section is subjectedto an applied uniform compressive stress (σa) the stress distribution across the crosssection becomes non-uniform due to the presence of the residual stresses discussedabove. The largest compressive stress will be at the edges and is (σa σr )Provided the total stress nowhere reaches yield, the section continues to deformelastically. Under incremental loading, the flange tips will yield first when [(σa σr ) fy]. Under further loading, yielding will spread inwards and eventually the web will alsoyield. When σa fy , the entire section will have yielded. The relationship between themean axial stress and mean axial strain obtained from the stub column test is seen inFig. 13.Only in a very stocky column (i.e. one with a very low slenderness) the residual stresscauses premature yielding in the manner just described. The mean stress at failure will befy , i.e. failure load is not affected by the residual stress. A very slender strut will fail bybuckling, i.e. σcr fy. For struts having intermediate slenderness, the premature yieldingat the tips reduces the effective bending stiffness of the column; in this case, the columnwill buckle elastically at a load below the elastic critical load and the plastic squash load.The column strength curve will thus be as shown in Fig. 14.Notice the difference between the buckling strength and the plastic squash load is most pronounced when λ λ π r E f y 12σfColumns with residual stressesfyElastic critical bucklingfy - σr(Mpa)π(E/fy)1/2λ λ/rFig. 14 Buckling of an initially straightcolumn having residual stressesVersion II6-14
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING4.4 The Effect of Strain-Hardening and the Absence of Clearly Defined Yield pointIf the material of the column has a stress-strain relationship as shown in Fig. 15, the onsetof first yield will not be affected, but the collapse load may be increased. Designers tendto ignore the effect of strain hardening which in fact provides a margin of safety.Strain hardening athigh strainsfy(Mpa)εFig. 15 Stress-strain relationship for Steels exhibiting strain hardeningHigh strength steels generally have stress-strain curves of the shape given in Fig. 16. Atstresses above the limit of proportionality (σp ), the material behaviour is non linear andon unloading and reloading the material is linear-elastic. Most high strength structuralsteels Fig. 16(a) have an yield stress beyond which the curve becomes more or lesshorizontal. Some steels do not have a plastic plateau and exhibit strain-hardeningthroughout the inelastic range Fig. 16(b). In such cases, the yield stress is generally takenas the 0.2% proof stress, for purposes of computation.σaσa(Mpa)fyfyσpσpεFig.16(a)Lack of clearly defined yieldVersion II0.2% proof stress(Mpa)0.2%εFig.16 (b) Lack of clearly defined yield with strainhardening6-15
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING4.5 The Effect of all Features Taken TogetherIn practice, a loaded column may experience most, if not all, of the effects listed abovei.e. out of straightness, eccentricity of loading, residual stresses and lack of clearlydefined yield point and strain hardening effects occurring simultaneously.Only strain hardening tends to raise the column strengths, particularly at low slendernessvalues. All other effects lower the column strength values for all or part of theslenderness ratio range.When all the effects are put together, the resulting column strength curve is generally ofthe form shown in Fig. 17. The beneficial effect of strain hardening at low slendernessvalues is generally more than adequate to provide compensation for any loss of strengthdue to small, accidental eccentricities in loading. Although the column strength canexceed the value obtained from the yield strength (fy ), for purposes of structural design,the column strength curve is generally considered as having a cut off at fy, to avoid largeplastic compressive deformation.Since it is impossible to quantify the variations in geometric imperfections, accidentaleccentricity, residual stresses and material properties, it is impossible to calculate withcertainty, the greatest reduction in strength they might produce in practice. Thus fordesign purposes, it may be impossible to draw a true lower bound column strength curve.A commonly employed method is to construct a curve on the basis of specified survivalprobability. (For example, over 98% of the columns to which the column curve relates,can be expected - on a statistical basis – to survive at applied loads equal to those givenby the curve). All design codes provide column curves based on this philosophy.Column curves proposed for the revised Indian Code of Practice are discussed in asubsequent chapter.σa(Mpa)Data from collapse testsfy Theoretical elastic buckling Lower bound curveπ (E/fy)1/2λ/rFig. 17 General strength curves for struts with initial out of straightness,Version II6-16
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING5.0 THE CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVE LENGTHSSo far, the discussion in this chapter has been centred around pin-ended columns. Theboundary conditions of a column may, however, be idealized in one the following ways Both the ends pin jointed (i.e. the case considered in art. 2)Both ends fixed.One end fixed and the other end pinned.One end fixed and the other end free.By setting up the corresponding differential equations, expression for the critical loads asgiven below are obtained and the corresponding buckled shapes are given in Fig. 18.Pcr Both ends fixed:4π2λE I2 λ r One end fixed and the other end pinned: P cr One end fixed and the other end free: Pcr 24πE22π2 λ r π 2E I4 λ2 E2π 2E λ 4 r 2Point of inflectionλλλ222λFig. 18 Buckled mode for different end conditionsVersion II6-17
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGUsing the column, pin ended at both ends, as the basis of comparison the critical load inall the above cases can be obtained by employing the concept of “effective length”, λe.It is easily verified that the calculated effective length for the various end conditions aregiven byBoth ends pin ended, λe λBoth ends fixed, λe λ / 2One end fixed and the other end pinned, λe λ2One end fixed and the other end free, λe 2λIt can be seen that the effective length corresponds to the distance between the points ofinflection in the buckled mode. The effective column length can be defined as the lengthof an equivalent pin-ended column having the same load-carrying capacity as the memberunder consideration. The smaller the effective length of a particular column, the smallerits danger of lateral buckling and the greater its load carrying capacity. It must berecognized that no column ends are perfectly fixed or perfectly hinged. The designermay have to interpolate between the theoretical values given above, to obtain a sensibleapproximation to actual restraint conditions. Effective lengths commonly employed byDesigners are discussed in Chapter 10.5.1Effective lengths in different planesThe restraint against buckling may be different for buckling about the two column axes.Fig 19(a) shows a pin-ended column of UC section braced about the minor axis againstlateral movement (but not rotationally restrained) at spacing λ /3. The minor axisbuckling mode would be with an effective pin-ended column length (λe)y of λ/3. If therewas no major axis bracing the effective length for buckling about the major axis (λe)xwould remain as λ. Therefore, the design slenderness about the major and minor axiswould be λ/rx and (λ/3)/ry, respectively. Generally rx 3ry for all UC sections, hence themajor axis slenderness (λ/rx) would be greater, giving the lower value of critical load, andfailure would occur by major axis buckling. If this is not the case, checks will have to becarried out about both the axes.Fig 19(b) shows a column with both ends fully restrained; the buckled shape has points ofcontraflexure, equivalent to pin ends, at λ/4 from either end. The central length is clearlyequivalent to pin-ended column of length λ/2. This is the case, which has full rotationalconstraints at the ends. Fig 20 (a) shows the effect of partial end-restraints.Sometimes columns are free to sway laterally, but restrained against rotation at both endsas in Fig.21 (a). A water tank supported on four corner columns as in Fig.21 (b) withrigid joints at top is an example for the above case. In this case the point of contraflexurePP and the effective length (λe 2 * λ/2) remains λ.is at mid-height of the columnλ/4Version IIλλ/3λλ/26-18
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING5.2Effective lengths recommended for DesignPPPλλePλλeλeNo swayλe always λ(a)λePPSwayλe always λ(b)(c)(d)Fig. 20 Columns with partial rotational restraintVersion II6-19
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGPartial end-restraints are much more common in practice than fully rigid end-constraints.The flexibility in the end-connection and (or) flexibility of the restraining membersensure partial fixity at the supports. A simple frame as shown in Fig.22 (a) is an exampleof the above case. For nodal loading, the in-plane buckling mode for this frame is shownin Fig. 22(b).Pλe λ(b)(a)Fig.21 Columns with differing effectivelengths-IIWith the top beam bent in an S-shape the rotational end-restraint stiffness is given by6 EI eλeθFor rigid beam-to-column joints this stiffness of the beam (Kθ) will control the position ofthe point of contraflexure in the column and thus the column effective length. Thesecolumns are represented in Fig. 22 (c) for which an effective length of 1.5λ is suggested.Kθ M WWθλe(a)(b)(c)Fig. 22 Column in a simple sway frameVersion II6-20
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING5.3No-sway and sway columnsFig. 20(a) and Fig. 20(b) represent the general cases of no-sway and sway columns withpartial end-restraint. The buckled shapes will be of the form shown if the top restraintstiffness (KθT ) and the bottom restraint stiffness (KθB) are equal. For the no sway case ofFig.20 (a) the position of the points of contraflexure will move within the column lengthas KθT and KθB vary. Fig.20(c) represents the situation of low KθT and high KθB. Howeverfor non-sway columns λe is always less than or equal to λ. By contrast, for sway columnsλe is always greater than or equal to λ. As Kθ decreases, the column end-joint rotationsincrease and λe can easily become 2λ or 3λ [Fig.20 (d)]. The limiting case of Kθ and KθB 0 gives λe .The column design stress may be written as:Pc (λπ 2Eery)2( area ) [ f ( Area )]where area is dominant, the column is stocky. Otherwise the column strength is largelydependent on (1/λe)2. Thus sway columns, i.e. with λe λ, are much weaker than no-swayones.5.4Accuracy in using Effective lengthsFor compression members in rigid-jointed frames the effective length is directly relatedto the restraint provided by all the surrounding members. In a frame the interaction of allthe members occurs because of the frame buckling rather than column buckling. For thedesign purposes, the behaviour of a limited region of the frame is considered. Thelimited frame comprises the column under consideration and each immediately adjacentmember treated as if it were fixed at the far end. The effective length of the criticalcolumn is then obtained from a chart which is entered with two coefficients k1, and k2, thevalues of which depends upon the stiffnesses of the surrounding members ku, kTL etc.Two different cases are considered viz. columns in non-sway frames and columns insway frames. All these cases as well as effective length charts are shown in Fig.23. Forthe former, the effective lengths will vary from 0.5 to 1.0 depending on the values of k1and k2, while for the latter, the variation will be between 1.0 and . These end pointscorrespond to cases of: (1) rotationally fixed ends with no sway and rotationally free endswith no sway; (2) rotationally fixed ends with free sway and rotationally free ends withfree sway.Version II6-21
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLINGλFig. 23 Limited frames and corresponding effective length charts of BS5950: Part 1and IS: 800.(a) Limited frame and (b) effective length ratios (k3 ), for non-sway frames.(c) Limited frame and (d) effective length ratios (without partial bracing, k3 0),for sway frames.Version II6-22
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING6.0 TORSIONAL AND TORSIONAL-FLEXURAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNSWe have so far considered the flexural buckling of a column in which the memberdeforms by bending in the plane of one of the principal axes. The same form of bucklingwill be seen in an initially flat wide plate, loaded along its two ends, the two remainingedges being unrestrained. [See Fig. 24 (a)]Twisted positionOriginal positionFig.24 (a) Plate with unsupported edgesFig.24 (b) Folded plate twists under axial loadOn the other hand, if the plate is folded at right angles along the vertical centre-line, theresulting angular cross-section has a significantly enhanced bending stiffness. Under auniform axial compression, the two unsupported edges tend to wave in the Euler typebuckles. At the fold, the amplitude of the buckle is virtually zero. A horizontal crosssection at mid height of the strut shows that the cross-section rotates relative to the ends.This mode of buckling is essentially torsional in nature and is initiated by the lack ofsupport at the free edges. This case illustrates buckling in torsion, due to the lowresistance to twisting of the member.Thus the column curves of the type discussed in Fig. 17 (see section 4.5)
A “short” column fails by compression yield Fig 1: “short” vs “long” columns A “long” column fails by predominant buckling Version II 6-2. INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKLING 2.0 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF AN IDEAL COLUMN OR STRUT WITH PINNED END
DIC is used to capture buckling and post-buckling behavior of large composite panel subjected to compressive loads DIC is ideal for capturing buckling modes & resulting out-of-plane displacements Provides very useful insight in the transition regime from local skin buckling to global buckling of panel
numerical post-buckling critical load is more conservative than that obtained in physical tests [4,5,6].Typical load-shorting of stiffened structure undergoing buckling and post-buckling response are shown in Figure 3 where corresponding simplifications have been overlaid indicating the k1 pre-buckling, k2 post-buckling, k3 collapse
post-buckling conditions. The results without considering any kind of imperfection, are closed and in good agreement with the tests in terms of buckling and post-buckling stiffness, as well as of collapse loads. Jiang et al. [13] studied the buckling of panels subjected to compressive stress using the differential quardrature element method.
Understanding Buckling Behavior and Using FE in Design of Steel Bridges STEVE RHODES AND TERRY CAKEBREAD, LUSAS, New York, NY IBC-13-05 KEYWORDS: Elastic Buckling, Eigenvalue Buckling, Nonlinear Buckling
The aim of this work is to present and discuss the results of an ongoing numerical investigation on the buckling, post-buckling, collapse and DSM design of two-span lipped channel beams.The numerical results presented were obtained through (i) GBT buckling analyses and (ii) elastic and elastic-plastic shell finite element (SFE) post-
Vibration Analysis with SOLIDWORKS Simulation 2 016 55 To find the magnitude of the buckling load we need to run a buckling analysis. Using the COLUMN part model, create a Buckling study titled 00 buckling and define restraints as shown in Figure 4-7. Figure 4-7: Restraints applied to the COLUMN model.
COLUMN LAYOUT Size of Each Column Tied Column Spiral Column Composition Column Axially Loaded Column Column With uniaxial Eccentric Loading Column With Biaxial Eccentric Loading . 1.Footing column Demarcation. 2.Column Steel Check 3.D.P.C. Level 4. Roof Shuttering 5.Roof Structure . 6. Electrical Wall 7. Sanitary Wall & Floor
The Elcometer 501 Pencil Hardness Tester can be used in accordance with the following National and International Standards: ASTM D 3363, BS 3900-E19, EN 13523-4 supersedes ECCA T4, ISO 15184, JIS K 5600-5-4. Note: For ASTM D 3363, the test is started using the hardest pencil and continued down the scale of hardness to determine the two end .
