QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICE
QUALITATIVERESEARCHPRACTICEA Guide forSocial Science Studentsand ResearchersEdited byJ A N ER I T C H I EA N DJ A N EL E W I SSAGE PublicationsLondon Thousand Oaks New Delhi
Editoral matter Jane Ritchie and Jane Lewis 2003Chapter 1 Dawn Snape and Liz Spencer 2003Chapter 2 Jane Ritchie 2003Chapter 3 Jane Lewis 2003Chapter 4 Jane Ritchie, Jane Lewis and Gillian Elam 2003Chapter 5 Sue Arthur and James Nazroo 2003Chapter 6 Robin Legard, Jill Keegan and Kit Ward 2003Chapter 7 Helen Finch and Jane Lewis 2003Chapters 8 and 9 Liz Spencer, Jane Ritchie and WilliamO'Connor 2003Chapter 10 Jane Lewis and Jane Ritchie 2003Chapter 11 Clarissa White, Kandy Woodfield and JaneRitchie 2003First published 2003Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research orprivate study, or criticism or review, as permitted underthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publicationmay be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form,or by any means, only with the prior permission in writingof the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction,in accordance with the terms of licences issued by theCopyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerningreproduction outside those terms should be sent to thepublishers.SAGE Publications Ltd6 Bonhill StreetLondon EC2A4PUSAGE Publications Inc.2455 Teller RoadThousand Oaks, California 91320SAGE Publications India Pvt LtdB-42, Panchsheel EnclavePost Box 4109New Delhi 110 017British Library Cataloguing in Publication dataA catalogue record for this book is availablefrom the British LibraryISBN 0 7619 7109 2ISBN 0 7619 7110 6 (pbk)Library of Congress Control Number 2002109391Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd., Chennai, IndiaPrinted in Great Britain The Cromwell Press Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire
ContentsNotes onContributorsEditors'AcknowledgementsPreface1 The Foundations of Qualitative ResearchDawn Snape and Liz SpencerDefining qualitative researchThe historical development of qualitative researchKey philosophical and methodological issuesin qualitative researchThe 'approach' within this bookKey pointsKey termsFurther reading2 The Applications of QualitativeMethods to Social ResearchJaneRitchieTheoretical and applied researchThe functions of qualitative researchThe functions of different qualitative methodsCombining qualitative and quantitative methodsKey pointsKey termsFurther reading3 Design IssuesJaneLewisDefining the research questionsBuilding design around research settingsand populationsSelecting the time frame for research
viQUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICEChoosing a data collection methodNegotiating research relationshipsResourcing and timetabling qualitative research studiesKey pointsKey termsFurther reading4 Designing and Selecting Samples56627174757677Jane Ritchie, Jane Lewis and Gillian ElamSampling strategies for qualitative researchStudy populationsSample framesDesigning a purposive sampleImplementing the sample designKey pointsKey termsFurther reading5 Designing Fieldwork Strategies and Materials77868896104107107108109Sue Arthur and James NazrooStructuring data collectionDesigning topic guidesIncorporating other research instruments and materialsPreparing for fieldwork and refining fieldwork strategiesKey pointsKey termsFurther reading6 In-depth Interviews110115127133136137137138Robin Legard, Jill Keegan and Kit WardThe in-depth interviewThe staging of an interviewAsking questions to achieve breadth and depthQuestion formulationFurther techniques for achieving depthPractical considerationsKey pointsKey termsFurther reading7 Focus Groups139144148153155165168168169170Helen Finch and Jane LewisFeatures and types of focus groupGroup processes and the stages of a focus group171174
CONTENTSConducting the discussionUsing the group process: some further strategiesGroup composition and sizePracticalities in organising the groupKey pointsKey termsFurther reading8 Analysis: Practices, Principles and ProcessesLiz Spencer, Jane Ritchie and William O'Connorvii180185190193197197198199Traditions and approaches within qualitative analysisComputer-assisted qualitative methodsThe key requirements of analytic toolsThe analytic hierarchyKey pointsKey termsFurther reading2002062092132172172189 Carrying out Qualitative AnalysisJane Ritchie, Liz Spencer and William O'Connor219Data managementDescriptive accountsExplanatory accountsAnalysing group dataKey pointsKey termsFurther reading10 Generalising from Qualitative ResearchJane Lewis and Jane RitchieDefinitions of generalisationApproaches to generalisationReliability and validityGeneralising from qualitative dataKey pointsKey termsFurther reading11Reporting and Presenting Qualitative DataClarissa White, Kandy Woodfield and Jane RitchieChallenges facing the qualitative reporterForms of research outputsWriting a qualitative research 6287288290293
viiiQUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICEDisplaying qualitative evidence - some generalfeatures and principlesOral presentationsKey pointsKey termsFurther reading301315319320320References321Index331
Notes on ContributorsThe National Centre for Social Research is Britain's largest independentsocial research organisation. It was established in 1969 and is registered as aneducational charity, with a staff of almost 200. The National Centre carriesout statistical and qualitative research across all the major social policy areas,specialising in the application and development of rigorous research methods. Its work is commissioned, primarily by central government departmentsbut also by other public bodies, or initiated by the Centre itself and fundedby research councils and foundations. Researchers at the National Centreoften work in collaboration with other research teams, or with academics andothers with specific substantive expertise. The Centre has housed a numberof ESRC Research Centres and other joint centres over the years.The Qualitative Research Unit was established within the NationalCentre in 1985. It specialises in the design, conduct and interpretation ofresearch studies using in-depth interviews and focus groups. The Unit nowhas a staff of 19 people. The Qualitative Research Unit and the Centre moregenerally has a longstanding interest in the development of research methods and standards. The Qualitative Research Unit runs a programme ofshort courses in in-depth interview and focus group research methods, andprovides tailored research teaching for university departments and unitsand other research groups.All the contributors to this book are current or past members of the Unitwho have published extensively on qualitative research studies. They havea wealth of experience of carrying out qualitative research studies in variedfields of social research and policy, and all have been involved in the Unit'steaching on research methods.EditorsJANE RITCHIE is a psychologist and has worked exclusively in social policyresearch throughout her career. She founded the Qualitative Research Unit at theNational Centre for Social Research in 1985 and was the Unit's Director until 1998.She was one of the originators of Framework - a qualitative analysis method nowwidely used in the UK.JANE LEWIS is Director of the Qualitative Research Unit at the National Centre. Shehas a background in law and began her social research career using qualitative andsurvey research methods in a management consultancy context. She moved to theNational Centre in 1994 to specialise in qualitative research and its application to socialpolicy, and succeeded Jane Ritchie as Director of the Qualitative Research Unit in 1998.
xQUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICEContributorsSue Arthur's academic background is in history and law. She began her professionalresearch career working for the Equal Opportunities Commission where sheundertook and commissioned research on gender equality issues. She also worked atthe Policy Studies Institute carrying out qualitative and quantitative research. Shemoved to the National Centre's Qualitative Research Unit in 1998, where she is aResearch Director.Gillian Elam has spent her career in social research, initially managing and commissioning research at the then Department of Social Security and subsequently specialising in qualitative research as a Senior Researcher at the National Centre. She is nowa freelance qualitative research consultant and teaches qualitative research methodsat Birkbeck College.Helen Finch, a former National Centre Research Director, holds degrees in socialscience and in fine art. She worked at the National Centre for 20 years where, as afounding member of the Qualitative Research Unit, she was involved in settingup and developing courses in focus groups. She now works as a group analyticpsychotherapist.Jill Keegan has been a leader in the arena field of qualitative fieldwork methods forthe last 35 years and played a central role in the creation and development of theNational Centre's Qualitative Research Unit. She has been involved in projectscovering a wide spectrum, from almost every aspect of social policy research togenerating scripts for verbatim theatre. She now works as an independent researcherand is currently involved in a filmed documentary project exploring different interview techniques.Robin Legard received his initial training in qualitative research at the NationalCentre more than 20 years ago. After a 12 year period as a freelance researcher, hereturned to the National Centre as a Senior Researcher in 1994. He has specialresponsibility for fieldwork skills within the Qualitative Research Unit. He has adegree in Modern Languages and worked as both a teacher and an actor beforeembarking on a research career.James Nazroo is a Reader in Sociology and head of the Health and Social SurveysResearch Group of the Department of Epidemiology at University College London.He also holds a honorary position in the Department of Psychiatry and BehaviouralSciences at UCL, where he teaches research methods on the MSc in Sociology, Healthand Healthcare. He was a Senior Researcher at the National Centre for several yearswhere he worked on both qualitative and statistical studies.William O'Connor is Deputy Director in the Qualitative Research Unit at theNational Centre. His academic background is in sociology and social policy. Hejoined the National Centre in 1994, working initially in statistical research beforemoving to the Qualitative Research Unit. With Kandy Woodfield, he is developing acomputerised method of Framework, the analytical method originated by theQualitative Research Unit.Dawn Snape began her professional research career in 1991 as a Project Researcherin the Qualitative Research Unit of the National Centre. She subsequently left theNational Centre to lecture in research methods at the Universities of Bristol andPlymouth, as well as continuing to carry out research. In 1997 Dawn re-joined theNational Centre where she is currently a Research Director with an interest in bothqualitative and quantitative research methods.
N O T E S ON C O N T R I B U T O R SxiLiz Spencer is a sociologist with 30 years' experience of qualitative research in bothacademic and applied policy contexts. While a Research Director in the QualitativeResearch Unit from 1985 to 1993 she collaborated in the conception and developmentof Framework with Jane Ritchie. She is now a partner in New Perspectives, an independent research consultancy, and teaches qualitative research methods at theUniversity of Essex.Kit Ward has worked as a specialist qualitative research interviewer for a major partof her career, following a period as a health professional. She has led the advancement of qualitative fieldwork methods both within the National Centre and throughher teaching in the wider research community. Kit Ward now works as an independent researcher with a range of social research organisations and consultants.Clarissa White, a Senior Associate Director at BMRB Qualitative, spent 11 yearsworking in the Qualitative Research Unit. During this time she developed the application of focus group methods for public consultation purposes, including in deliberative polls, citizens' juries and consultative panels. Before joining the NationalCentre she had a career in television as a researcher on current affairs programmes.Kandy Woodfield is a Deputy Director of the Qualitative Research Unit at theNational Centre. She co-ordinates the qualitative research training provided by theQualitative Research Unit and is involved in developing a computerised version ofFramework, the analytical method used there. Prior to joining the National Centre in1997 she was involved in academic research and teaching focusing on socio-legalissues, political science and research methods.
Editors' AcknowledgementsWe owe a sincere debt of gratitude to the many people who have helped tocreate this book. Foremost among them are the principal contributors toindividual chapters for the enthusiasm and thought they brought to the task.They had to write their chapters alongside busy research lives and it is atribute to their commitment that they achieved this so ably.Among the authors, we are particularly grateful to Liz Spencer, who alsocarried out an initial review of the literature. This informed all the chaptersand we are grateful for the theoretical guidance and wise counsel she gaveus throughout. She has been an unstintingly generous and stimulatingcolleague to all of us.We would like to thank Sue Johnson, the librarian at the National Centre,for her tireless help with locating literature. We owe warm thanks to LydiaCole and Elisabeth Valdani for their skilful work on the manuscript, and forthe calmness with which they dealt with final changes.Also within the National Centre, we thank our other colleagues, particularly those now and formerly members of the Qualitative Research Unit.They have helped to hone the skills and approaches of the National Centre'spractice of qualitative research. But a significant impetus for this book alsocame from the people who have attended our short courses in qualitativeresearch methods over the years. Their questions and reflections have influenced our approaches, and the way we think about what we do.We are also grateful for the support of the organisations which havefunded our studies. We have been lucky enough to work with many highlyskilled and insightful researchers outside the National Centre and havelearnt enormously from their collaboration. But none of this would havebeen possible, of course, without the people who participated in our studiesover the years. They have perhaps taught us most of all.We acknowledge with gratitude the support of our editorial team at Sage,particularly Michael Carmichael and Zoe Elliott. We would also wish tothank the two thoughtful (although anonymous) readers of an earlier draftfor the very helpful comments and suggestions they made.Jane RitchieJane Lewis
PrefaceThis book is about qualitative research and how to do it. It documents thepractice of qualitative research, both for those who are embarking on studies for the first time and for those who want to gain further understandingof its methodological principles. It is intended for those working in appliedpolicy fields as well as those concerned with the development of socialtheory more generallyThe book has been written by a team of practising researchers from thecurrent and past staff of the Qualitative Research Unit at the National Centrefor Social Research. The National Centre is an independent social researchinstitute which is dedicated to research for the development and evaluationof public policy. The Qualitative Research Unit specialises in the conduct ofin-depth research, primarily involving individual interviews and focusgroups, for explanatory, evaluative or strategic purposes. The authors whohave contributed to the book have drawn on experience of designing, conducting, analysing and reporting on qualitative studies as a central part oftheir everyday work.The methods described have been developed over several decades. Theyhave been refined and enhanced in response to an ever widening repertoireof applications. There is particular emphasis on data generated throughin-depth interviews and focus groups, two data collection methods widelyused in more applied qualitative inquiry. This focus means that less attentionis given to the study of naturally occurring data, such as observation, documentary analysis, discourse and conversation analysis, although the originsand uses of these methods are discussed. There are also a number of excellent texts on the use and conduct of such methods and key references tothese are given throughout the chapters. It should also be noted that manyof the principles described in relation to working with interviews and focusgroups have relevance for the full repertoire of qualitative methods.There are many forms of qualitative research, each shaped by differentepistemological origins, philosophies about the nature of scientific inquiryand its outcomes and varying prescriptions for methodological rigour. Abrief overview of these is given in Chapter 1 by way of a context to thesubsequent chapters. This review also helps to locate our particular approachto qualitative research which is based on three central tenets. First, qualitativeresearch needs to be conducted in a rigorous way, with an explicit methodological base to inform its design and execution. Second, we believe that there
xivQUALITATIVERESEARCH PRACTICEis a 'reality' to be captured in terms of the social constructs, beliefs andbehaviours that operate, albeit a diverse and multifaceted one. We alsorecognise the fluidity of this reality but see it as sufficiently stable to informthe development of contemporary social policy and theory. Third, andrelated, we hold the view that small-scale qualitative studies can be used todraw wider inference about the 'social world', provided that there is appropriate adherence to the boundaries of qualitative research.But, as qualitative research specialists, our primary wish is to honour themany alternatives offered to us in different approaches to qualitative research.Qualitative research scholars have provided a rich array of 'styles' and'schools' from which to learn and it is part of the intellectual challenge todraw on these as needed. As Seale has argued in discussing the 'quality' ofqualitative research. pragmatic social researchers can use philosophical and political debates asresources for achieving certain mental attitudes, rather than a set of underlyingprinciples from which all else must flow, creating unnecessary obstacles to flexible and creative inquiry . One can, then, understand such debates as conversations stimulating methodological awareness among researchers, rather thanlaying foundations for truth. (1999: 26)We hope this book will display not only the principles that lie behind ourown 'school' of qualitative research but also some of the differing perspectives that can lead to alternative decisions in designing and conductingresearch studies.The book provides a guided tour of the qualitative research process,beginning with a discussion of the different forms, roles and uses of qualitative research, moving through design, sampling, data collection and analysis. We end with two chapters on how - and why - evidence from qualitativeresearch can be used to deepen understanding of society and its individualcommunities, and some requirements for its reporting.At the end of each chapter, a summary is given of the key points that havebeen covered. This is followed by a description of key terms used that maynot be familiar to all readers. Also at the end of each chapter is a short list oftexts we would recommend for further reading. These are volumes thateither we have found particularly enlightening on the subject matter of thechapter or which provide a useful overview of differen
Key philosophical and methodological issues in qualitative research The 'approach' within this book Key points Key terms Further reading 2 . responsibility for fieldwork skills within the Qualitative Research Unit. He has a degree in Modern Languages and worked as both a teacher and an actor before embarking on a research career. James Nazroo is a Reader in Sociology and head of the Health .
Research Practice Guide. 2 Code for America’s Qualitative Research Practice Guide is a statement from our qualitative research team of how we approach qualitative research, why we believe research is critical to the effective delivery of government services, and how you can engage with our research practice.
qualitative data. (Note that pure qualitative research will follow all of the paradigm characteristics of qualitative research shown in the right column of Table 2.1.) Mixed research – research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics. The mixing of
Qualitative Analysis of Anions 1 Experiment 10 Qualitative Analysis of Anions Pre-Lab Assignment Before coming to lab: Read the lab thoroughly. Answer the pre-lab questions that appear at the end of this lab exercise. The questions should be answered on a separate (new) page of File Size: 343KBPage Count: 16Explore further(PDF) Experiment Report: Analysis of Anions and Cations .www.academia.eduExperiment 7 Qualitative Analysis: Anionswww.csus.eduLab Experiment #8: Qualitative Analysis of Common Anions .www.youtube.comQualitative Analysis of Anions - Odinitywww.odinity.comLab 13 Qualitative Analysis of Cations and Anionsdoctortang.comRecommended to you b
ter on qualitative research methods (Morrow & Smith, 2000), a comprehensive introduction to qualitative research methods that drew from the larger body of qualitative methodological literature, particularly in education. Given the diversity and comprehensiveness of the qualitative writings in education and the location of many counseling
The relationship between qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods research. The importance of the research question in an analysis. The need for methodological rigour in qualitative research. 1.1 Qualitative, Quantitative – A Few Clarifications What do the terms ‘qualitative data’ and ‘quantitative data’ mean? While the
Qualitative Research Design January 2015 Margaret R. Roller such as social media and mobile, as well as the evolving stature of Qualitative Research Design: Selected Articles from Research Design Review . The Sage handbook of qualitative research. T
This article offers a rationale for the contributions of qualitative research to evidence-based practice in special education. In it, I make the argument that qualitative research encompasses the ability to study significant problems of practice, engage with practitioners in the conduct of research studies, learn and
Qualitative Research from Start to Finish SECOND EDITION Robert K. Yin THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London . Brief Contents PUT 1 Understanding Qualitative Research CHAPTER 1 What Is Qualitative Research— 3 and Why Might You Consider Doing Such Research?
