UNIT 7A: MEMORY
UNIT 7A: MEMORYTHE PHENOMENON OF MEMORYOBJECTIVE 1: Define memory, and explain how flashbulbmemories differ from other memories.1. Learning that persists over time indicates the existenceof MEMORY for that learning.2. Memories for surprising, significant moments that areespecially clear are called FLASHBULBmemories. Like other memories, theseCAN memories (can/cannot) err.OBJECTIVE 2: Describe Atkinson-Shiffrin’s classic threestage processing model of memory, and explain how thecontemporary model of working memory differs.3. Both human memory and computer memory can beviewed as INFORMATION PROCESSING systems that perform threetasks: ENCODING ,STORAGE , andRETRIEVAL .4. The classic model of memory has been Atkinson andShiffrin’s THREE STAGE PROCESSINGmodel. According to this model, we first recordinformation as a fleeting SENSORYMEMORY , from which it is processedinto SHORT TERM memory, where theinformation is ENCODED throughrehearsal into LONG TERM memory for later retrieval.5. The phenomenon of short-term memory has beenclarified by the concept of WORKINGmemory, which focuses more on the processing of brieflystored information. This form of memory has bothAUDITORY and VISUAL SPATIAL subsystems, which are coordinatedby a CENTRALEXECUTIVEprocessor that, with the help of theEPISODIC buffer, allows us to processimages and words SIMULTANEOUSLY .6. Brain scans show that the FRONTALLOBES are active during complex thinking,whereas areas in the PARIETAL and theTEMPORAL LOBES areactive when auditory and visual information is in workingmemory.ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INOBJECTIVE 3: Describe the types of information we encodeautomatically.1. Encoding that does not require conscious attention oreffort is called AUTOMATICPROCESSING . Some processing requireseffort at first but with PRACTICE andEXPERIENCE it becomes effortless.Give examples of material that is typically encoded withlittle or no effort.AUTOMATIC PROCESSING INCLUDES THE ENCODING OFINFORMATION ABOUT SPACE, TIME, AND FREQUENCY. IT ALSOINCLUDES THE ENCODING OF WORD MEANING, A TYPE OFENCODING THAT APPEARS TO BE LEARNED.OBJECTIVE 4: Contrast effortful processing with automaticprocessing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacingeffect, and the serial position effect.2. Encoding that requires attention and effort is calledEFFORTFUL PROCESSING .3. With novel information, conscious repetition, orREHEARSAL , boosts memory.4. A pioneering researcher in verbal memory wasEBBINGHAUS . In one experiment, he foundthat the longer he studied a list of nonsense syllables,the FEWER (fewer/greater) the numberof repetitions he required to learn it later.5. After material has been learned, additional repetition, orOVERLEARNING , usually will increase retention.6. When people go around a circle reading words, theirpoorest memories are for the MOST(least/most) recent information heard. Thisphenomenon is called the NEXT IN - LINE effect.7. Memory studies also reveal that distributed rehearsal ismore effective for retention; this is called theSPACING EFFECT .8. The tendency to remember the first and last items in alist best is called the SERIALPOSITION EFFECT .Following a delay, first items are better rememberedBETTER (better/less well) than lastitems.OBJECTIVE 5: Compare the benefits of visual, acoustic, andsemantic encoding in remembering verbal information,and describe a memory-enhancing strategy related to theself-reference effect.9. Encoding the meaning of words is referred to asSEMANTIC encoding; encoding by sound iscalled ACOUSTIC encoding.10. Craik and Tulving’s study comparing visual, acoustic, andsemantic encoding showed that memory was best withSEMANTIC encoding.
11. Our excellent recall of information that relates toourselves is called the SELF REFERENCE effect.OBJECTIVE 6: Explain how encoding imagery aids effortfulprocessing, and describe some memory-enhancingstrategies that use visual encoding.12. Memory that consists of mental pictures is based on theuse of IMAGERY . Because they tend to behighly memorable, they aid EFFORTFULPROCESSING .13. Concrete, high-imagery words tend to be rememberedBETTER (better/less well) than abstract,low-imagery words.14. Memory for concrete nouns is facilitated when weencode them SEMANTICALLY andVISUALLY .15. Our tendency to recall the high points of pleasurableevents such as family vacations illustrates thephenomenon of ROSYRETROSPECTION .16. Memory aids are known as MNEMONICdevices. One such device involves forming associationsbetween a familiar series of locations and to-beremembered words; this technique is called the“ METHOD OFLOCI .”17. Using a jingle, such as the one that begins “one is a bun,”is an example of the “ PEG WORD ” system.OBJECTIVE 7: Discuss the use of chunking and hierarchiesin effortful processing.18. Memory may be aided by grouping information intomeaningful units called CHUNKS . Anexample of this technique involves forming words fromthe first letters of to-be-remembered words; the resultingword is called an ACROYNM .19. In addition, material may be processed intoHIIERARCHIES , which are composed of afew broad concepts divided into lesser concepts,categories and facts.STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATIONOBJECTIVE 8: Contrast two types of sensory memory.1. Stimuli from the environment are first recorded inSENSORY memory.2. George Sperling found that when people were brieflyshown three rows of letters, they could recallABOUT HALF (virtually all/about half) ofthem. When Sperling sounded a tone immediately aftera row of letters was flashed to indicate which letterswere to be recalled, the subjects were muchMORE (more/less) accurate. Thissuggests that people have a brief photographic, orICONIC , memory lasting about a fewtenths of a second.3. Sensory memory for sounds is calledECHOIC memory. This memory fadesLESS (more/less) rapidly thanphotographic memory, lasting for as long as3 OR 4 SECONDS .4.5.6.7.OBJECTIVE 9: Describe the duration and working capacityof short-term memory.Peterson and Peterson found that whenREHEARSAL was prevented by asking subjectsto count backward, memory for letters was gone after 12seconds. Without ACTIVE processing,short-term memories have a limited life.Our short-term memory capacity is about7 chunks of information. This capacitywas discovered by GEORGE MILLER .Short-term memory for randomDIGITS (digits/letters) is slightly betterthan for random LETTERS(digits/letters), and memory for information we hear issomewhat BETTER (better/worse) thanthat for information we see.Both children and adults have short-term recall forroughly as many words as they can speak in2 (how many?) seconds.OBJECTIVE 10: Describe the capacity and duration of longterm memory.8. In contrast to short-term memory – and contrary topopular belief – the capacity of permanent memory isessentially UNLIMITED (LIMITLESS) .9. Penfield’s electrically stimulated patients DONOT (do/do not) provide reliable evidence thatour stored memories are precise and durable.10. Psychologist KARL LASHLEY attemptedto locate memory by cutting out pieces of rats’CORTEXES after they had learned amaze. He found that no matter where he cut, the ratsREMEMBERED (remembered/forgot) the maze.11. It is likely that forgetting occurs because newexperiences INTERFERE with our retrievalof old information, and the physical memory traceDECAYS with the passage of time.OBJECTIVE 11: Discuss the synaptic changes thataccompany memory formation and storage.12. Researchers believe that memory involves astrengthening of certain neural connections, whichoccurs at the SYNAPSES betweenneurons.
13. Kandel and Schwartz have found that when learningoccurs in the sea snail Aplasia, the neurotransmitterSEROTONIN is released in greateramounts, making synapses more efficient.14. After learning has occurred, a sending neuron needsLESS (more/less) prompting to fire,and the number of RECEPTORSITES it stimulates may increase.This phenomenon, called LONG TERM POTENTIATION ,may be the neural basis for learning and memory.Blocking this process with a specificDRUG , or by genetic engineering thatcauses the absences of an ENZYME ,interferes with learning. Rats given a drug that enhancesLTP will learn a mazeFASTER (faster/more slowly).15. Drugs that boost production of the proteinCREB , or the neurotransmitterGLUTAMATE , may enhance memory.16. After LTP has occurred, an electric current passedthrough the brain WILL NOT (will/will not)disrupt old memories and WILL(will/will not) wipe out recent experiences.OBJECTIVE 12: Discuss some ways stress hormones canaffect memory.17. Hormones released when we are excited or under stressoften FACILITATE (facilitate/impair)learning and memory.18. Two emotion-processing clusters, theAMYGDALA , in the brain’sLIMBIC system increase activity inthe brain’s memory-forming areas.19. Drugs that block the effects of stress hormonesDISRUPT (facilitate/disrupt) memoriesof emotional events. Stress that is prolonged, however,may cause an area of the brain (theHIPPOCAMPUS ) that is vital to layingdown memories to SHRINK .OBJECTIVE 13: Distinguish between implicit and explicitmemory, and identify the main brain structure associatedwith each.20. The loss of memory is called AMNESIA .Studies of people who have lost their memory suggestthat there IS NOT (is/is not) a singleunified system of memory.21. Although amnesia victims typically HAVENOT (have/have not) lost their capacity forlearning, which is called IMPLICITmemory, they ARE NOT (are/are not)able to declare their memory, suggesting a deficit in theirEXPLICIT memory systems.22. Amnesia patients typically have suffered damage to theHIPPOCAMPUS of their limbic system. Thisbrain structure is important in the processing andstorage of EXPLICIT memories. Damageon the left side of this structure impairsVERBAL memory; damage on the rightside impairs memory for VISUALdesigns and locations. The rear part of this structureprocesses SPATIAL memory.23. The hippocampus seems to function as a zone where thebrain TEMPORARILY(temporarily/permanently) stores the elements of amemory. However, memories DO(do/do not) migrate for storage elsewhere. Thehippocampus is active during SLOW WAVE sleep, as memories areprocessed for later retrieval. Recalling past experiencesactivates various parts of the FRONTALand TEMPORAL lobes.24. The cerebellum is important in the processing ofIMPLICIT memories. Humans andlaboratory animals with a damaged cerebellum areincapable of simple EYE BLIINK conditioning. Those withdamage to the AMYGDALA areincapable of FEAR conditioning,indicating that this brain region is important in theformation of IMPLICIT memories.25. The dual explicit-implicit memory system helps explainINFANTILE amnesia. We do not haveexplicit memories of our first three years because theHIPPOCAMPUS is one of the last brainstructures to mature.RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUTOBJECTIVE 14: Contrast the recall, recognition, andrelearning measures of memory.1. The ability to retrieve information not in consciousawareness is called RECALL .2. Bahrick found that 25 years after graduation, peoplewere not able to RECALL(recall/recognize) 90 percent of their names and wereable to RECOGNIZE (recall/recognize) theiryearbook pictures.3. If you have learned something and then forgotten it, youwill probably be able to RELEARN itMORE (more/less) quickly than youdid originally.OBJECTIVE 15: Explain how retrieval cues help us accessstored memories, and describe the process of priming.4. The process by which associations can lead to retrieval iscalled PRIMING .5. The best retrieval cues come from the associationsformed at the time we ENCODE a memory.
OBJECTIVE 16: Cite some ways that context can affectretrieval.6. Studies have shown that retention is best when learningand testing are done in THE SAME (thesame/different) contexts.Summarize the text explanation of the déjà vu experience.THE DÉJÀ VU EXPERIENCE IS MOST LIKELY THE RESULT OFBEING IN A CONTEXT SIMILAR TO ONE THAT WE HAVE ACTUALLYBEEN IN BEFORE. IF WE HAVE PREVIOUSLY BEEN IN A SIMILARSITUATION, THOUGH WE CANNOT RECALL WHAT IT WAS, THECURRENT SITUATION MAY PRESENT CURES THATUNCONSCIOUSLY HELP US TO RETRIEVE THE EARLIEREXPERIENCE.OBJECTIVE 17: Describe the effects of internal states onretrieval.7. The type of memory in which emotions serve as retrievalcues is referred to as STATE DEPENDENT memory.8. Our tendency to recall experiences that are consistentwith our current emotional state is calledMOOD - CONGRUENTmemory.Describe the effects of mood on memory.WHEN HAPPY, FOR EXAMPLE, WE PERCEIVE THINGS IN APOSITIVE LIGHT AND RECALL HAPPY EVENTS; THESEPERCEPTIONS AND MEMORIES, IN TURN, PROLONG OUR GOODMOOD. MOODS ALSO INFLUENCE HOW WE INTERPRET OTHERPEOPLE’S BEHAVIOR.9. People who are currently depressed may recall theirparents as REJECTING, PUNITIVE AND GUILTPROMOTING . People who have recovered fromdepression typically recall their parents about the sameas do people who HAVE NEVER SUFFEREDDEPRESSION . Moods also influence how weINTERPRET other people’s behavior.FORGETTINGOBJECTIVE 18: Explain why we should value our ability toforget, and distinguish three general ways our memoryfails us.1. Without the ability to FORGET , we wouldconstantly be overwhelmed by information.2. Memory researcher Daniel Schacter has identified theseven sins of memory, divided into three categories thatidentify the ways in which our memory can fail: the threesins of FORGETTING , the three sins ofDISTORTION , and the one sin ofINTRUSION .OBJECTIVE 19: Discuss the role of encoding failure inforgetting.3. The first type of forgetting is caused byENCODING failure.4. This type of forgetting occurs because some of theinformation that we sense never actually ENTERS THEMEMORY SYSTEM .5. One reason for age-related memory decline is that thebrain areas responsible for ENCODING newinformation are LESS (more/less) responsivein older adults.OBJECTIVE 20: Discuss the concept of storage decay, anddescribe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.6. Studies by Ebbinghaus and by Bahrick indicate that mostforgetting occurs SOON (soon/ a longtime) after the material is learned.7. This type of forgetting is known as STORAGEDECAY , which may be caused by agradual fading of the physical MEMORYTRACE .8. When information that is stored in memory temporarilycannot be found, RETRIEVAL failure hasoccurred.OBJECTIVE 21: Contrast proactive and retroactiveinterference, and explain how they can cause retrievalfailure.9. Research suggests that memories are also lost as aresult of INTERFERENCE , which isespecially possible if we simultaneously learn similar,new material.10. The disruptive effect of previous learning on currentlearning is called PROACTIVEINTERFERENCE . This disruptive effect of learningnew material on efforts to recall material previouslylearned is called RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE .11. Jenkins and Dallenbach found that if subjects went tosleep after learning, their memory for a list of nonsensesyllables was BETTER (better/worse)than it was if they stayed awake.12. In some cases, old information facilitates our learning ofnew information. This is called POSITIVETRANSFER .OBJECTIVE 22: Summarize Freud’s concept of repression,and state whether this view is reflected in current memoryresearch.13. Freud proposed that motivated forgetting, orREPRESSION , may protect a person frompainful memories.14. Increasing numbers of memory researchers think thatmotivated forgetting is LESS (less/more)common than Freud believed.
15. Emotions and their associated STRESShormones generally STRENGTHENmemories.MEMORY CONSTRUCTIONOBJECTIVE 23: Explain how misinformation andimagination cannot distort our memory of an event.1. Research has shown that recall of an event is ofteninfluenced by past experiences and presentassumptions. The workings of these influencesillustrate the process of memoryCONSTRUCTION .2. When witnesses to an event receive misleadinginformation about it, they may experience aMISINFORMATION EFFECT andmisremember the event. A number of experiments havedemonstrated that false memoriesCAN (can/cannot) be created whenpeople are induced to imagine nonexistent events; thatis, these people later experience“ IMAGINATION INFLATION .”People who believe they have recovered memories ofalien abduction and child sex abuse tend to haveVIVID IMAGINATIONS .
13. Kandel and Schwartz have found that when learning occurs in the sea snail Aplasia, the neurotransmitter _SEROTONIN_ is released in greater amounts, making synapses more efficient.
In memory of Paul Laliberte In memory of Raymond Proulx In memory of Robert G. Jones In memory of Jim Walsh In memory of Jay Kronan In memory of Beth Ann Findlen In memory of Richard L. Small, Jr. In memory of Amalia Phillips In honor of Volunteers (9) In honor of Andrew Dowgiert In memory of
Memory Management Ideally programmers want memory that is o large o fast o non volatile o and cheap Memory hierarchy o small amount of fast, expensive memory -cache o some medium-speed, medium price main memory o gigabytes of slow, cheap disk storage Memory management tasks o Allocate and de-allocate memory for processes o Keep track of used memory and by whom
21-07-2017 2 Chap. 12 Memory Organization Memory Organization 12-5 12-1 Memory Hierarchy Memory hierarchy in a computer system Main Memory: memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU (RAM) Auxiliary Memory: device that provide backup storage (Disk Drives) Cache Memory: special very-high-
Chapter 2 Memory Hierarchy Design 2 Introduction Goal: unlimited amount of memory with low latency Fast memory technology is more expensive per bit than slower memory –Use principle of locality (spatial and temporal) Solution: organize memory system into a hierarchy –Entire addressable memory space available in largest, slowest memory –Incrementally smaller and faster memories, each .
Memory -- Chapter 6 2 virtual memory, memory segmentation, paging and address translation. Introduction Memory lies at the heart of the stored-program computer (Von Neumann model) . In previous chapters, we studied the ways in which memory is accessed by various ISAs. In this chapter, we focus on memory organization or memory hierarchy systems.
CMPS375 Class Notes (Chap06) Page 2 / 17 by Kuo-pao Yang 6.1 Memory 281 In this chapter we examine the various types of memory and how each is part of memory hierarchy system We then look at cache memory (a special high-speed memory) and a method that utilizes memory to its fullest by means of virtual memory implemented via paging.
The BlueNRG-LP embeds high-speed and flexible memory types: Flash memory of 256 kB, RAM memory of 64 kB, one-time-programmable (OTP) memory area of 1 kB, ROM memory of 7 kB. Direct data transfer between memory and peripherals and from memory-to-memory is supported by eight DMA channels with
An Introduction to Memory LO 1 Define memory. LO 2 Describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Flow With It: Stages of Memory LO 3 Explain the stages of memory described by the information-processing model. LO 4 Describe sensory memory. LO 5 Summarize short-term memory. LO 6 Give examples of how we can use chunking to improve our memory span.
