Chapter 6: Memory - WordPress
DE BO R AHM.L ICH TMIST YG.H UL LCO COBAL L ANT Y NEChapter 6: MemoryCourtesy Dr. Julie GralowCopyright Macmillan education 2015
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Part 1 LO 1 Define memory.LO 2 Identify the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval in memory.LO 3 Explain the stages of memory described by the information-processing model.LO 4 Describe sensory memory.LO 5 Summarize short-term memory.LO 6 Give examples of how we can use chunking to improve our memory span.LO 7 Explain working memory and how it compares with short-term memory.LO 8 Define long-term memory.LO 9 Illustrate how encoding specificity relates to retrieval cues.LO 10 Identify some of the reasons why we forget.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Part 2 LO 11 Explain how the malleability of memory influences the recall of events.LO 12 Define rich false memory.LO 13 Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia.LO 14 Identify the brain structures involved in memory.LO 15 Describe long-term potentiation.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory: The ConductorIn 1985 conductor Clive Wearing (pictured herewith his wife Deborah) developed a braininfection—viral encephalitis—that nearly took hislife.Clive recovered physically, but his memory wasnever the same.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
An Introduction to Memory: Part 1Memory Refers to information the brain receives, stores, and may retrieve forfor later use Is not completely understood but a basic agreement on generalprocesses involvedCopyright Macmillan education 2015
An Introduction to Memory: Part 2MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVALEncoding Includes the process through which information enters the memorysystem Occurs when stimuli associated with events are converted to neuralactivity that travels to the brain Involves two possible paths: Memory system entry or loss of stimuliCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory: Part 1MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVALStorage Includes process of preserving information for possible recollection inthe futureRetrieval Refers to the process of accessing information encoded and stored inmemoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory: EncephalitisThe red area in this computerized axialtomography (CAT or CT) scan reveals inflammationin the temporal lobe.The cause of this swelling is herpes simplex virus,the same virus responsible for Clive’s illness.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory: World Memory Athletes Brains of memory champions are not wired buttrained to excel in memory tasks. Heightened activity in specific brain areasoccurred in memory competitors’ brains. Activity seemed to be associated with use of animagined order after flipping through them justonce.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORYOne of the most influential is the information-processing model, which suggests thatmemory operates in a series of stages.This model, first developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, suggests that these stages representa flow of information.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory: Levels of ProcessingMemory can also be conceptualized fromprocessing standpoint. Shallow Intermediate DeepCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Try This: Part 1Try to remember the name “Clive Wearing” by(1) picturing it written out in uppercase letters (CLIVE WEARING),(2) imagining what it sounds like (Clive Wearing rhymes with dive daring),and(3) contemplating its underlying significance (Clive Wearing is themusician who suffers from an extreme case of memory loss).Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Why Testing Boosts LearningGETTING QUIZZED STRENGTHENS MEMORY―JOGGING KEYWORD CLUESWhy are people who are tested on materials more likely to succeed thanthose who simply study? Rawson and Pyc found that students in a practice test group werebetter at remembering word pairs during a final exam. Testing improved memory by strengthening keyword associations andweeding out cues that did not work.Andrea Anderson. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2010Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Improving Memory and Long-Term Retention of New Information STUDY TIPSSurveyQuestionReadRecallReviewIndividualize processSpace your studyMinimize distractionTest frequentlySleepCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 11. refers to the information that your brain collects, stores, and may use at alater time.2. is the process whereby information enters our memory system.a. Retrievalb. Encodingc. Communicationd. Spatial memoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 23. After suffering from a devastating illness, Clive Wearing essentially lost the ability touse which stage of the information-processing model?a. long-term memoryb. sensory memoryc. memory for keywordsd. sensory register4. How might you illustrate shallow processing versus deep processing as it relates tostudying?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of MemorySENSORY MEMORY: THE HERE AND NOWSperling Devised partial report method to demonstrate that more is seen thancan be remembered Found that visual impressions in iconic memory are photograph-like inaccuracy but dissolve in less than a secondCopyright Macmillan education 2015
How Long Does Iconic Memory Last?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
The Stages of Memory: Sensory Memory – Part 1Eidetic imageryEchoic imagery Comes fairly close tophotographic memory Involves young children whohave the ability to "see" imageor object for as long as severalminutes after It has beenremoved from sight Captures very subtle changes insound Lasts from about 1 to 10secondsCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Try This: Part 2Copyright Macmillan education 2015
The Stages of Memory: Sensory Memory – Part 2SHORT-TERM MEMORYDuration Amount of time information is maintained and processed in STMinfluenced by distractions by other cognitive activities Limited capacityCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 1SHORT-TERM MEMORYDistraction can reduce the amount of timeinformation remains in short-term memory.When performing a distracting cognitive task,most people were unable to recall a lettercombination beyond 18 seconds.Source:From Peterson and Peterson (1959), Figure 3, p.195.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Think AgainMULTITASKING AND MEMORYBowman and colleagues Found students who used IMing during a reading task performed at the same levelas non-IMing peers, but took longer reading timeJunco and Cotton Found that students who frequently text and use Facebook during study havelower GPAs than those who do notCan you explain these results?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 2SHORT-TERM MEMORYChunking Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets asstrategy for increasing the quantity of information that can bemaintained in short-term memoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
The Stages of Memory: Short-Term MemoryWorking memory Active processing of memory in short-term memory Maintenance and manipulation of information in the memory systemCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 3WORKING MEMORY: WHERE THE ACTION ISPhonological loop is responsible for working with verbal information forbrief periods of time.Can you provide an example of a phonological loop?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Model of Working MemoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 4WORKING MEMORY: WHERE THE ACTION ISVisuospatial sketchpad: Is where visual and spatial data are briefly stored and manipulatedCentral executive: Directs attention, makes plans, and coordinates activities Determines what information is used and what is ignoredEpisodic buffer: Forms the bridge between memory and conscious awarenessCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Long-term MemoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
The Stages of Memory: Long-Term Memory – Part 1Explicit memorySemantic memory Type of memory you are awareof having and can consciouslyexpress in words or declare,including memories of facts andexperiences. Memory of informationtheoretically available toanyone, which pertains togeneral facts about the world; atype of explicit memory.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
The Stages of Memory: Long-Term Memory – Part 2Episodic memory Record of memorableexperiences or “episodes”including when and where anexperience occurred; a type ofexplicit memory.Flashbulb memory Detailed account ofcircumstances surroundingemotionally significant orshocking, sometimes historic,event.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Implicit MemoryIMPLICIT MEMORY Memory of something one knows or knowshow to do May be automatic or unconsciousPROCEDURAL MEMORY Unconscious memory of how to carry outvariety of skills and activities; type of implicitmemoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Try This: Part 3Take 15 seconds and try to memorize these seven words in the order theyappear.puppy stop sing sadness soccer kick panicNow close your eyes and see how many you recall.How did you do?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Memory AidsMnemonics Mnemonics help us translate information into aform that is easier to remember.Method of loci Mnemonic device in which person visualizesitems to be learned with landmarks in somefamiliar placeCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 5MEMORY AIDS: PUT YOUR MEMORY TO THE TESTBower and colleagues Found that participants were better able to learn a word list if theinformation was organized in any meaningful way Reported word learning was three times more effective when ahierarchy was usedCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 6PROCESSING, EFFORT, AND IMPROVING LONG-TERM MEMORYAutomatic and effortful processing Requires work; intentionalMaintenance rehearsal Involves repeated rehearsal of information to be learned; increases length of timeinformation held in short-term memoryElaborative rehearsal Connects information to knowledge in long-term memory; deep level of encodingCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 7PROCESSING, EFFORT, AND IMPROVING LONG-TERM MEMORYMassed practice CrammingDistributed practice Separating study or practice sessions Influenced by culture and beliefsCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Study Smarter: Methods of Improving Your MemoryCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Across the WorldMEMORY AND CULTURECultural differences Chinese people are more likely than Americansto remember social and historical occurrencesand focus memories on other people;collectivist Americans tend to recall events as they relateto individual actions and emotions;individualisticCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Flow with It: The Stages of Memory – Part 8PROCESSING, EFFORT, AND IMPROVING LONG-TERM MEMORYSleep and memory Adequate sleep aids in memory processingCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 31. Your best friend tells you to close your eyes because she has a present for you. Justafter you close your eyes, you momentarily “see” an image of her face. This is anexample of:a. echoic memory.b. iconic memory.c. spatial memory.d. semantic memory.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 42. According to the information-processing model, our short-term memory can holdonto information for up to about if we are not distracted by something else.a. 10 secondsb. 30 secondsc. 45 secondsd. 60 secondsCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 53. As you enter the airport, you try to remember the location of the baggage claimarea. You remember the last time you picked up your friend at this airport, and usingyour visuospatial sketchpad, realize the area is to your left. This ability demonstratesthe use of your:a. sensory memory.b. working memory.c. phonological loop.d. flashbulb memory.4. memory is the type of memory you are aware of having and canconsciously declare, whereas memory is a memory of something you knowhow to do, but which might be automatic or unconscious.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 65. On 9/11 Tanya was watching television when a news bulletin announced theterrorist attacks. She has vivid memories of that moment, including what she wasdoing, the friends she was with, and many details of her surroundings. This type ofmemory is known as a(n):a. phonological loop.b. sensory memory.c. implicit memory.d. flashbulb memory.6. Develop a mnemonic device to help you memorize the following terms from thissection: explicit memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, flashbulb memory,implicit memory, and procedural memory.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 1WHAT CAN YOU RETRIEVE?Retrieval cues Stimuli that aid in retrieval of information that is difficult to accessPriming Stimulation of memories as result of retrieval cues in environmentCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 2“One Hour Numbers” is one of the most demandingevents in the World Memory Championships.Contestants are given 1 hour to memorize as manynumbers as possible, and then 2 hours to write them inorder on paper.The world record, currently held by Wang Feng of China, is2660 digits (World Memory Statistics, 2013).Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 3WHAT CAN YOU RETRIEVE?Recall Retrieving information held in long-term memorywithout explicit retrieval cues; more difficult thanrecognitionRecognition Matching incoming data to information stored in longterm memory; just have to identify information ratherthan come up with informationCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 4SERIAL POSITION EFFECTItems at the beginning and the end of a list aremore likely to be recalled. Primacy effect Recency effectCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 5DOES CONTEXT INFLUENCE MEMORY RETRIEVAL?Encoding specificity principleGodden and Baddeley asked participants to learn a list ofwords in two contexts: underwater and on dry land.The participants had an easier time recalling words whenlearning and recalling happened in the same setting(learning underwater and recalling underwater, or learningon dry land and recalling on dry land).Source: Godden and Baddeley, 1975Context-dependent memories are easier to access whenthe encoding and retrieval occur in similar contexts.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 6Mood and memoryMood congruence The deeper the processing, thegreater the likelihood ofretrieval. The origin of a memoryprovides a host of retrieval cues. Memory is facilitated whenphysiological and psychologicalconditions are similar at time ofencoding and retrieval. Retrieval also easier if contentof memory corresponds topresent emotional stateCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Cues . . . Retrieval CuesWhile watching your favorite James Bond movie, you pick up on all sorts ofbackground stimuli from the environment.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 7HOW EASILY WE REMEMBER: MEMORY SAVINGSEbbinghaus First to quantify effect of relearning Noted the reduced time taken in relearningBowers People who have knowledge of language (non-explicit) from early lifeoften show a “memory savings” when trying to relearn language asadults.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 8HOW EASILY WE FORGET: MEMORY SLIPS EXPLAINEDEbbinghaus First to demonstrate how rapidly memories vanishEncoding failures Cause of forgetting dependent on stage of memory processing atinstance of memory failureCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Ebbinghaus’s Curve of ForgettingEbbinghaus discovered that most forgetting occurs within 1 hour of earningand then levels off.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Try This: Part 4Look at the 10 pennies above. Which one is correct?Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Retrieval and Forgetting: Part 9HOW EASILY WE FORGETMemory slips explained Storage failure and memory decay Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (retrieval failure) Hyperthymestic syndrome (remembering everything)Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Proactive and Retroactive InterferenceCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 71. suggests that retrieving memories is easier in the context in which theywere made.a. The encoding specificity principleb. Retroactive interferencec. Proactive interferenced. The curve of forgettingCopyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 82. Your friend remarks that her scores are better when she studies and takes her quizin Starbucks than if she studies in Starbucks but takes the quiz at home. She isexhibiting:a. context-dependent memory.b. proactive interference.c. retroactive interference.d. mood-congruency of memory.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 93. Ebbinghaus reported that his memory of word lists plunged the first hour after helearned them; he displayed this in his:a. encoding specificity principle.b. curve of forgetting.c. recency effect.d. serial position effect.4. Imagine a friend is almost finished with her application for a job she really wants.5. Create two arguments for when she should submit her application using what youknow about the serial position effect (applications are being accepted for a seven-dayperiod): one based on the primacy effect, the other on the recency effect.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
True or False?Memories are not reliable records of reality.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
The Reliability of Memory: MisinformationMisinformation effect Memories can be changed in response to new information. Eyewitness accounts can be altered by variety of factors that follow anevent to be recalled.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
The Reliability of MemoryFALSE MEMORIESWould you believe that looking at photoshoppedpictures can lead to the creation of falsememories?In one study, it was discovered that participantscould “remember” hot air balloon rides theynever took after looking at doctored photos ofthemselves as children on balloon rides.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
ControversiesTHE DEBATE OVER REPRESSED CHILDHOOD MEMORIESThe APA and other organizations have investigated repressed memory and offeredseveral conclusions. The repressed memory debate should not detract from child sexual abuse issues. Most sexual abuse victims have at least one memory. Memories of past abuses can be forgotten and remembered at a later date. People do create false memories of experiences. There is not a complete understanding of how accurate and flawed memories areformed.Copyright Macmillan education 2015
Show What You Know: Part 101. The refers to the tendency for new and misleading information to distortmemories.2. Your uncle claims he attended a school play in which you played the Cowardly Lion.He has described the costume you wore, the lines you mixed up, and even the flowershe gave you. At first you can’t remember the play, but eventually you seem to. Yourmother insists you were never in that school play, and your uncle wasn’t in the countrythat year, so he couldn’t have attended the performance at all. Instead, you haveexperienced a:a. curve of forgetting.b. state-dependent memory.c. savings score.d. rich false mem
LO 4 Describe sensory memory. LO 5 Summarize short-term memory. LO 6 Give examples of how we can use chunking to improve our memory span. LO 7 Explain working memory and how it compares with short-term memory. LO 8 Define long-term memory. LO 9 Illustrate how encoding specificity relates to retrieval cues.
Part One: Heir of Ash Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 .
TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD. Contents Dedication Epigraph Part One Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Part Two Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18. Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26
DEDICATION PART ONE Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 PART TWO Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 .
Memory -- Chapter 6 2 virtual memory, memory segmentation, paging and address translation. Introduction Memory lies at the heart of the stored-program computer (Von Neumann model) . In previous chapters, we studied the ways in which memory is accessed by various ISAs. In this chapter, we focus on memory organization or memory hierarchy systems.
In memory of Paul Laliberte In memory of Raymond Proulx In memory of Robert G. Jones In memory of Jim Walsh In memory of Jay Kronan In memory of Beth Ann Findlen In memory of Richard L. Small, Jr. In memory of Amalia Phillips In honor of Volunteers (9) In honor of Andrew Dowgiert In memory of
Memory Management Ideally programmers want memory that is o large o fast o non volatile o and cheap Memory hierarchy o small amount of fast, expensive memory -cache o some medium-speed, medium price main memory o gigabytes of slow, cheap disk storage Memory management tasks o Allocate and de-allocate memory for processes o Keep track of used memory and by whom
CMPS375 Class Notes (Chap06) Page 2 / 17 by Kuo-pao Yang 6.1 Memory 281 In this chapter we examine the various types of memory and how each is part of memory hierarchy system We then look at cache memory (a special high-speed memory) and a method that utilizes memory to its fullest by means of virtual memory implemented via paging.
Chapter 2 Memory Hierarchy Design 2 Introduction Goal: unlimited amount of memory with low latency Fast memory technology is more expensive per bit than slower memory –Use principle of locality (spatial and temporal) Solution: organize memory system into a hierarchy –Entire addressable memory space available in largest, slowest memory –Incrementally smaller and faster memories, each .
