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CONTENTS1.Pre–Historic Period.11.1 Paleolithic Age1.2 Mesolithic Age1.3 Neolithic Age1.4 Metal Age2.The Harappan Civilization.122.1 Important Indus Valley Sites2.2 Origin & Evolution2.3 Salient Features of the Harappan Culture2.4 Living Pattern of Harappans2.5 Religion3.The Vedic Age.233.1 Vedic Literature3.2 Early Vedic Period3.3 Later Vedic Period4.Mahajanapadas & The Rise of Magadhan Empire. 344.1 Buddhist and Jain Texts4.2 Mahajanapadas4.3 Magadha Dynasties5.Jainism & Buddhism (6th Century BC). 435.1 Causes Behind Emergence5.2 Jainism5.3 Buddhism
CONTENTS6.The Mauryan Empire.616.1 Literary Source6.2 Persian and Macedonian Invasions6.3 Political History of The Mauryas6.4 Mauryan Administration6.5 Mauryan Art & Architecture7.Post–Mauryan India.777.1 Sunga Dynasty7.2 Bactrians/Indo-Greeks7.3 Sakas/Scythians7.4 Kushanas8.Sangam Age (300 BC–200 AD).878.1 Sangam Literature8.2 Cheras8.3 Cholas8.4 Pandyas8.5 Salient Feature of Sangam Peroid9.Gupta Empire and Harshavardhana.979.1 Source Regarding Gupta Empire9.2 Gupta Lineage9.3 Salient Features of Gupta’s Rule9.4 Harshavardhana
Chapter1Pre–Historic Period INTRODUCTIONThe English word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia, meaning “inquiry,knowledge acquired by investigation”. It corresponds to the study of the past andthrows light on various past events of significance which shaped and evolved humanexperiences. History is further divided into Pre-History Proto-History HistoryEvents occurring before the invention of writing are considered the domain ofpre-history, which is generally represented by the three stone ages. Defining proto-history is rather difficultas it has different connotations. Generally,it refers to a period between prehistoryand history, during which a culture orcivilisation has not yet developed writingbut are mentioned in the written recordsof a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the script of the Harappancivilisationremainsundeciphered;however, since its existence is noted inMesopotamian writings, it is considereda part of proto-history. Similarly, the Vedic civilisation from1500–600 BCE had an oral literarytradition, though they did not takewww.vetriias.com to literary writing—they can thus beconsidered a part of proto-history as well.Archaeologists consider Neolithic andChalcolithic cultures to be a part of protohistory.The study of the past after the invention ofwriting and the study of literate societiesbased on the written and archaeologicalsources constitutes history.The history and identity of humansettlements in India go back to prehistorictimes.The credit for doing an early extensivestudy of Indian pre-history go to RobertBruce Foote, who discovered what1
Vetrii IAS Study Circlewas probably the first palaeolithic tooldiscovered in India—the Pallavaramhandaxe. Later, he discovered a large number ofpre-historic sites in South India. The contribution of Sir Mortimer Wheeleris equally significant, as his efforts greatlycontributed towards our knowledge ofthe pre-historical cultures of India andtheir sequence.TECHNIQUES FOR THE DATING OFTHE PRE–HISTORICAL PERIODRadio–Carbon Dating The technique of radio–carbon dating iscommonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbonPre – Historic PeriodClassification of Indian Stone Age On the basis of geological age, the typeand technology of stone tools, andsubsistence base, the Indian Stone Age isclassified primarily into three types: Oldstone Age, Paleolithic(5,00,000 10,000 BCE) Late Stone Age, Mesolithic(10,000 6000 BCE) New Stone Age, Neolithic(6,000 4000 BCE)It is divided in to1. Chalcolithic (or) copper age(3000 BC 1500 BC)2. Iron age - (1500 BC 600 BC) It refers to the number of tree rings in the1.1 PALEOLITHIC (OR) OLD STONEAGE (10,000 BC YEARS AGO) In the beginning people did not know 2AgeThe new technology of smelting metal ore& crafting metal aircrafts in an importantdevelopment in human civilization.Dendro–ChronologyTree ring records (Dendro-Chronology).AgeMetal Agein organic materials over a period of time.wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.The development of archeology helpsmuch to understand the life and cultureof the people who lived in this period.Agehow to grow food. They were basicallyfood gatherers and hunters.The art of hunting & stalking wild animalsindividually & later in groups led to thesepeople making stone weapons & tools.They used tools for hunting animals,chopping meat; cutting wood & diggingroots & tubes etc.The basic technique of making thesecrude tools was by taking a stone andflaking its sides with a heavier stone.By this time, human beigns had come tomake & use fire.www.vetriias.com
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic PeriodPainting Shows Animal groups, Men & women dancing, Hunting & food gathering, and It depicts a woman with her child tiedto her waist throwing an arrow.Tools They used stone tools, hand–sized andflaked–off large pebbles for hunting, Large stone axes,Bhimbetka cave in Madhya Pradesh.1.1.1 Living PatternNomadic Life They moved from place to place in searchof food & shelter food was obtained byhunting animals & gathering edibleplants & tubers. Men, women, & children lived in groupsto protect themselves from ferociousanimals. These peoples are called as hunter–gatherers.Shelter: They lived in caves & rock shelters.Cloth: He wore dresses made out of leaves,skin of animals & barks of trees. Stone implements are made of a hardrock known as quartzite, Bones & horns of animals, Branches of trees.Use of Fire For cooking, To keep warm during the winter, They gathered around it & listened to thestories from elders, Protected them from wild animals.Some of the famous sites of OldStone Age in India are1. The Soan valley & Potwar plateauon the northwest–India2. The Siwalik hills on the north India3. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh4. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valleyArt They spent their leisure time in painting& carving on the surface of caves. These paintings and carvings give usvaluable information about their life. In the Bhimbetka cave in MadhyaPradesh, we see a painting.Tools of Old Stone Age Period.www.vetriias.com3
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic Period5. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh &Attirampakkam near Chennai.1.2 MESOLITHIC AGE (OR) MIDDLESTONE AGE (10,000 BC. TO 6000BC) The next stage of human life is calledMesolithic age,1.2.1 Living Pattern They began to a tendency to settle forlonger periods in an area. Domestication of animals. Horticulture. Primitive cultivation started.Tools It was the transitional phase, In the Mesolithic age, the stone toolsbegan to be made more pointed and sharp.To ensure a life that had abundance offood & clothing, the stone tools began toappear in increasingly specialized way. A different types of stone tools is found. Tiny stone artifacts; often not more thanfive centimeters in size, & therefore calledmicroliths. Use of bow & arrow also began duringthis period.Sub-classification of Paleolithic PeriodEarly or lower PalaeolithicMiddle PalaeolithicLate or Upper PalaeolithicUse of hand axes,choppers, and cleavers,mainly for chopping,digging, and skinning.Use of stone toolsmade of flakes, mainlyscrapers, borers, points,and blade like tools.Parallel-sided blades, burins,and some instances of bonetools.Found in Soan andSohan river valley (nowin Pakistan), Kashmir,Thar Desert (Didwana,Rajasthan), Hiran Valley(Gujarat), rockshelters ofBhimbetka (MP), and BelanValley Mirzapur (UP)Found in Soan,Narmada andTungabhadra rivervalleys, Potwar plateau(between Indus andJhelum), SanghaoCave (near peshawar,Pakistan).Found in Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Maharashtra,Central MP, Southern UP andChhotanagpur Plateau. Bonetools found only at cave sitesof Kurnool and MuchchatlaChintamani Gavi in AndhraPradesh.5,00,000 BCE 50,000 BCE50,000 BCE 40,000 BCE40,000 BCE 10,000 BCECovers the greater part ofthe Ice Age.Established only in 1960by H.D. Sankalia andwas named Nevasanindustry after the site ofNevasa (Maharastra).Homo sapiens first appearedat the end of this phase.Coincided with the last phaseof the Ice Age, when theclimate became comparativelywarm and less humid.4www.vetriias.com
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic PeriodSome of the other aspects of theMesolithic Age are Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites,Microliths of Mesolithic Age. The simple handheld stone tools werenow attached to thick branches fromtrees with rope made from animal skin &sinew; known as hand axes. Apart from hand axes, they also producedcrude stone-tipped wooden spears,borers, and burins.Art The Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-history.In 1867, the first rock paintings in Indiawere discovered at Sohagighat (KaimurHills, UP).Now, over 150 Mesolithic rock art siteshave been discovered across India,with rich concentration in Central Indiasuch as the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar,Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarhand Sambalpur (Orissa), Ezhuthu Guha(Kerala).Animals dominate the scenes at mostMesolithic rock art sites. However,no snakes are depicted in MesolithicPaintings.Burials and rock paintings give us ideasabout the development of religiouspractices and also reflect the division oflabour on the basis of gender.www.vetriias.combut it is present at Langhnaj in Gujaratand in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur(UP). The last phase of this age saw thebeginning of plant cultivation.Important Mesolithic sites are Bagor, Rajasthan on River Kothari is one of the largest and best documentedMesolithic sites in India.Chhotanagpur Region, Central India.Both Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor providethe earliest evidence for the domesticationof animalsSouth of River Krishna, Tinnevelly inTamil NaduBirbhanpur in West BengalSarai Nahar Rai, near Allahabad,Pratapgarh areaMahadaha, U.P., where bone artifacts arefound, including arrowheads and boneornaments.1.3 NEOLITHIC AGE (OR) NEWSTONE AGE (6000 BC TO 4000 BC) A Remarkable progress in noticed inhuman civilization in the Neolithic age. It is approximately dated from 6000 BC to4000 BC. The chief characteristic features of theNeolithic culture are the practice ofagriculture, domestication of animals,polishing of stone tools, and themanufacture of pottery.5
Vetrii IAS Study Circle In fact, the cultivation of plants anddomestication of animals led to theemergence of village communities basedon sedentary life.1.3.1 Notable changes duringNeolithic Periodi) Advent of Food Production: TheNeolithic man cultivated land and grewfruits & corn like ragi and horse gram(kulathi). He domesticated cattle, sheep, andgoats.ii) Innovations in Technology: TheNeolithic man innovated in the productionof stone tools, producing implements suchas polished, pecked, and ground stone tools.iv) Emergence of Self-sufficientVillage Communities: In the later phasesof the Neolithic era, people led a more settledlife. They lived in circular and rectangularhouses made of mud and reed. They alsoknew how to make boats and could spincotton and wool and weave cloth.v) Division of Labour based on Sexand Age: As society was progressing,theneed for additional labour was recognisedand thus labour was procured from othernon kin groups too.1.3.2 Living Pattern They depended on polished stonesShelters: Mud brick houses were builtinstead of grass huts. The use of celts was especially importantClothes: The people of Neolithic age usedclothes made of cotton & wool.other than quartzite for making tools.for ground and polished handaxes.Based on the types of axes used, threeimportant areas of Neolithic Settlements canbe identified:a) North-Western: Rectangular axeswith curved cutting edgeb) North-Eastern: Polished stone axeswith rectangular butt, has occasionalshouldered hoes.c) Southern: Axes with oval sides andpointed butt.iii) Invention of Pottery: The Neolithicera communities first made pottery by handand then with the help of the potter’s wheel.Their pottery included black burnishedware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware. Itcan therefore be said that pottery on a largescale appeared in this phase.6Pre – Historic PeriodFood: They started learning to producetheir own food, They learned how to cultivate grains,such as rice, wheat, & barley, millet. Ricecultivation was extensive in eastern India. It was discovered that by Putting seeds inthe soil & watering it, plants would grow. This marked the beginning of agriculture. Pottery was used for cooking & as well asstorage of food grains.1.3.3 Occupation Agriculture was their main occupation. They domesticated & reared animals likegoat, sheep, cattle & pig.www.vetriias.com
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic PeriodTechniques they learned1.3.3 Their Practices Technique of making vessels and jars out The earth was regarded as a mother who of clay & baskets from bamboo, & keptthe grains in them.Sometimes they made pits and plasteredlime from inside & used it as a storagebin.In the beginning, clay pots were made byhand. They were then dried in the sun orbaked in kilns to make them hard.Later, wheels like today were used tomake pots.The discovery of the wheel made asignificant difference. It was also used tospin cotton & wool & weave cloth.After, wheel, was used in makingtransport vehicles like bullock carts &chariots.feeds and sustains the life of her children. Small clay images of earth in the form ofmother goddess were worshipped. They had the practice of burying thedead, the dead were buried in graves (or)sometimes in a large pot (or) urn whichwas buried. The dead were buried along with pots,beads, tools & with their tamed animalsin the front yard of their houses.1.3.5 Tools There was a great improvement intechnology of making tools & otherequipments used by man. The polished axes were found to be moreeffective tools for hunting & cutting trees.Some of the tools which they usedwere Digging stick–for digging the ground Axe–for cutting & felling trees Sickle–for cutting crops & grass Grinding stone–for grinding grainsMany Neolithic Settlements havebeen found in Kashmir valley Chirand in Bihar Belan valley in uttar Pradesh Several places of the DeccanSome of the important sites:Excavated in South India Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur & KodekalNeolithic Implements.www.vetriias.comin Karnataka,7
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic Period Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu, Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.1.4 METAL AGE Afterthe beginning of agriculture,Progress in the life style of people wasfast. Soon they learnt the use of metalsto make tools & weapons, the first metalthat came to be used was copper. After some time they learnt to add a littletin to copper to make it harder than thecopper, which is very soft & brittle. Thisis known as bronze.1.4.1 Chalcolithic Age (or) CopperAge: (3000 BC to 15000 BC) Chalcolithic cultures had grown in rivervalleys. The harappan culture is considered as apart of chalcolithic culture.Living Pattern People began to travel for a long distanceto obtain metal ores. This led to a network of chalcolithiccultures & this chalcolithic cultures werefound in many parts of India.Tools Use of copper toolsChalcolithic Implements. Microlithic tools continued to be essentialitems Use of stone tools also was not given upSome Evidences The harappan culture is considered asa part of chalcolithic culture. In southIndia the river valleys of the Godavari,Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar & Kaveriwere settled by farming communitiesduring this period. Although they were not using metals inthe beginning of the metal age, there isevidence of copper and bronze artifactsby the end of second millennium BC. Several bronze & copper objects, beads,terracotta figurines and pottery werefound at paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.1.4.2 Iron Age (15000 BC–600 BC) The chalcolithic age is followed by Ironage.Difference between Chalcolithic Culture and Harappan CultureChalcolithic CultureHarappan CulturePrimarily ruralPrimarily urbanUsed mostly copperUsed bronzeLived near hilly land or riversAttained urbanisation on the basis ofproduce from flood plains in Indus valley8www.vetriias.com
Vetrii IAS Study CirclePre – Historic Period They were creative. House hold articles and agriculturalimplements were made out of iron.Megalith The Iron Age of the southern peninsula isIron Age Tools. The period when the tools were made upof iron was called iron age. Vedic period is belonging to the Iron Age.Iron is frequently referred to in the vedas.Techniques they Learned They learnt to melt the metal & makeoften related to megalithic Burials. Megalith means large stone. The burial pits were covered with thesestones. Such graves are extensively found insouth India.Some of the important Megalithicsites are Hallur & maski in Karnataka Nagarjanakonda in Andhra Pradesh Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu.weapons.Archaeological Excavations in India.www.vetriias.com9
The Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-history. In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered at Sohagighat (Kaimur Hills, UP). Now, over 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have been discovered across India, with rich concentration in Central India such as the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarh
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