Ancient Egyptian Quarries – An Illustrated Overview
Geological Survey of Norway Special Publication n 12Ancient Egyptian quarries– an illustrated overviewJames A. Harrell1 and Per Storemyr2Department of Environmental Sciences (MS #604), 2801 West Bancroft Street,The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606–3390, USA.2Geological Survey of Norway, 7491 Trondheim, Norway/CSC Conservation Science Consulting, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.Present address: Herrligstrasse 15, CH-8048 Zurich, Switzerland.E-mail: james.harrell@utoledo.edu and per.storemyr@bluewin.ch1The surviving remains of ancient Egyptian material culture are dominated by the stones used forbuilding, ornamental, gem, and utilitarian applications. These came mainly from the Nile Valley andEastern Desert (with some also from the Western Desert), where over 200 quarries have been discovered spanning about 3500 years from the Late Predynastic Period to the Late Roman Period. Theharder stones (nearly all the igneous and metamorphic rocks plus silicified sandstone and chert)were quarried using stone tools aided by fire setting and wood levers up until the Late Period, whenthe stone tools were replaced by iron ones. The softer stones (mainly limestone, sandstone, andtravertine) were extracted with copper and, later, bronze picks and chisels during the Dynastic Period, with iron tools again replacing the earlier ones by the end of the Late Period. Until the advent ofsuitable roadways and wagons rugged enough to transport them in the Greco–Roman Period, thelarger pieces of quarried stone were carried on sledges, often along prepared roads, and probablypulled by teams of men to the building sites or to the Nile River for shipping. Ancient quarries aremore than just sources of stones, but are also rich archeological sites with ruins and other culturalremains. Their study and preservation is necessary because they provide a unique perspective onlife in ancient Egypt.Harrell, J.A. and Storemyr, P. (2009) Ancient Egyptian quarries—an illustrated overview. In Abu-Jaber, N., Bloxam, E.G., Degryse,P. and Heldal, T. (eds.) QuarryScapes: ancient stone quarry landscapes in the Eastern Mediterranean, Geological Survey of NorwaySpecial Publication,12, pp. 7–50.7
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrIntroductionMuch of what remains of ancient Egyptconsists of stone. There are buildingstones for temples, pyramids, and tombs;ornamental stones for vessels, sarcophagi, shrines, stelae, statues, and othersculptures; gemstones for jewelry andthe decorative arts; and utilitarian stonesfor tools, weapons, grinding stones, andother applications. It is with the sourcesand varieties of these stones that thispaper is concerned. We have excludedthose rocks supplying precious metals,such as gold and copper, but for thesesee Ogden (2000) and Klemm et al.(2001, 2002). The term ‘quarry’ is usedhere for all extraction sites, althoughthose for gemstones (and precious metals) are more commonly referred to as‘mines.’ In the sections that follow, thegeology of Egypt is first summarized inorder to provide a general idea of thestones available to the ancient Egyptians.A database of known ancient quarries isthen presented and this is followed by adiscussion of the various uses to whichthe quarried stones were put. The paper continues with a description of thequarrying technologies employed, andconcludes with a review of the typicalarcheological remains found at quarrysites. This overview is intended for thegeneral reader and so reference citationsare largely omitted from the text but areincluded in the bibliography.Overview of EgyptiangeologyEgypt’s oldest rocks date to the late Precambrian and early Phanerozoic eons,approximately 500 to 2600 million yearsago (Ma), with most forming during thePan-African Orogeny of 500 to 1200 Ma(see Table 1 for the geologic time scaleand the geologic ages of the quarry stones,and attached, fold-out map for the generalized geology of Egypt and the quarrylocations). These include both igneousand metamorphic rocks, collectively referred to as Egypt’s ‘crystalline basementcomplex’. The basement rocks are mostlyburied beneath layered sequences ofyounger Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks.Overlying most of the latter are geologically recent (Quaternary period) depositsof unconsolidated sediments, includingfluvial siliciclastic gravel, sand, and mudin the Nile Valley and desert wadis, andaeolian sand in the Eastern Desert andespecially in the Western Desert with itsvast Saharan ‘sand sea’. During the Quaternary, biogenic deposits accumulatedalong Egypt’s coasts, with carbonatedunes forming behind the Mediterranean beaches and carbonate reefs forming off the Red Sea shore.Outcrops of Precambrian basementrocks are restricted to the southern SinaiPeninsula, the southeast and southwestcorners of the Western Desert, and theRed Sea Hills of the Eastern Desert. Thelatter outcrops broaden westward at thelatitude of Aswan and extend all the wayto the Nile, where they form this river’s‘First Cataract’. Another five cataracts interrupt the Nile River in northern Sudan.Outcrops of sedimentary rocks, mainlysandstone in southern (Upper) Egyptand limestone to the north in Middleand Lower Egypt, form the ‘walls’ of theNile Valley and the surfaces of the adjacent plateaus of the Western and Easterndeserts.During the Paleozoic and Mesozoiceras of the Phanerozoic eon, Egypt wasalternately elevated above sea level andinundated by shallow seas with mostlyTable 1. Geologic time scale. Dates are from USGS (2007).EonEraPeriodEpochMillion yearsbefore enePleistoceneEgyptian quarriesall limestone along the Mediterranean coastlimestone at Dahshur and Gebel el-Girall anhydrite and gypsum along the Red Sea coastGebel Ahmar silicified sandstone and all basaltall limestone in the Nile Valley, except at Dahshur, Gebel el-Girand el-Dibabiya; all travertine and chert; andthe Umm el-Sawan gypsumlimestone at 45.5–199.6199.6–251all sandstone, including the silicified variety except at Gebel Ahmarall turquoise and some 8.8–65.5Precambrian542–4,000 8all igneous and metamorphic rock varieties, except basalt;and all gemstones except turquoise and some malachite
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nsiliciclastic sedimentary rocks forming(conglomerate, sandstone, and mudrock)plus some limestone. The thickest andmost areally extensive of these deposits isthe Nubia Group (or Sandstone), whichdates to the latter part of the Cretaceousperiod and was deposited in shallowmarine to mainly fluvial environments.From the Late Cretaceous through theEocene epoch of the Tertiary period,most of Egypt was under a shallow seaand accumulating carbonate sedimentsthat are best represented today by thevarious Eocene limestone formations.Beginning in the Oligocene epoch andcontinuing through the Quaternary period, most of Egypt was above sea leveland once again receiving predominantlysiliciclastic sediments.The mid-Tertiary uplift of Egypt,which initiated the return of siliciclasticsedimentation, was caused by the opening of the Red Sea, a plate tectonic riftingevent that separated the Arabian Peninsula from the African landmass, beginning about 30 Ma. As a consequenceof this rifting, the crystalline basementcomplex was pushed up to form the RedSea Hills, a south-to-north flowing paleo-Nile river developed along a fracturezone west of the Red Sea Hills, magmaticactivity produced dolerite dikes that intruded all earlier rocks, and volcaniceruptions extruded basaltic lava flows.The paleo-Nile was fed by tributariesdraining the lands to the west and eastof its course in Egypt, but the modernNile River, with its water sources in theEthiopian and Ugandan highlands, datesto the late Quaternary. For additionalinformation on the geology of Egyptsee Said (1990) and Tawadros (2001),and for a non-technical introduction seeSampsell (2003).Ancient Egyptian quarriesdatabaseJust over 200 ancient quarries are knownfrom Egypt, and these range in age fromthe Late Predynastic to the Late RomanPeriod, a span of about 3500 years (seeTable 2 for the chronology of ancientEgypt). The attached map shows theirdistribution and provides, on the back,the names and coordinates of the quarrylocalities as well as their stone types andgeneral ages. Detailed plans of severalof the larger, more important quarries(and the associated quarry landscapes)are provided in Figures 7–8, 19, 21–22,26, 28 and 32. Nearly all quarries, except those now under Lake Nasser, werelocated in the field by the authors. Theirlatitudes and longitudes, as reportedhere, are those determined from GoogleEarth satellite images (www.GoogleEarth.com). The workings for most of thequarries are visible on these images, butthey are seldom obvious. This databasealso includes several quarries of medievalIslamic date in Egypt’s Eastern Desert.Although it is the most comprehensivelist of ancient Egyptian quarries yet published, this database is still incomplete.There are undoubtedly many more quarries awaiting discovery as well as othersthat will remain unknown because theyhave been destroyed by urban growth,modern quarrying, or natural weathering and erosion. Moreover, the databasedoes not include quarries earlier than theLate Predynastic Period, such as those ofPaleolithic and Neolithic age for toolsmade from chert (flint) and silicifiedsandstone (quartzite).The authors’ publications and otherselected sources on specific Egyptianquarries and their stones are provided inthe bibliography. Other useful sourcesof information include Lucas (1962,p. 50–74, 386–428), De Putter andKarlshausen (1992), and Klemm andKlemm (1993, 2008). See Figures 10and 11 for images of selected ancientquarry stones.Sources and uses of stonein ancient EgyptBuilding stonesLimestone and sandstone were the mainbuilding stones of ancient Egypt (Figures 1–10). From Early Dynastic timesonward, limestone was the material ofchoice within the limestone region forpyramids, mastaba tombs, and temples.Beginning in the late Middle Kingdom,sandstone was used for all temples withinthe sandstone region as well as many ofthose in the southern part of the limestone region. Both limestone and sandstone were also employed for statuaryand other non-architectural applicationswhen harder and more attractive orna-Table 2. Ancient Egyptian chronology. Dates are from Baines and Malek (2000, p. 36–37).Late Predynastic Periodca. 3100–2950 BCEDynastic PeriodEarly Dynastic PeriodOld KingdomFirst Intermediate PeriodMiddle KingdomSecond Intermediate PeriodNew KingdomThird Intermediate PeriodLate Period2950–2575 BCE2575–2150 BCE2125–1975 BCE1975–1630 BCE1630–1540 BCE1540–1075 BCE1075–715 BCE715–332Greco–Roman PeriodPtolemaic PeriodRoman PeriodByzantine (or Late Roman) Period332–30 BCE30 BCE–395 CE395–640 CEIslamic PeriodDynasties 1–3Dynasties 4–8Dynasties 9–11Dynasties 11–14Dynasties 15–17Dynasties 18–20Dynasties 21–early 25Dynasties late 25–30640 CE–present9
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 1. Limestone quarries near Cairo. Top: open-cut workings at Giza (L2, 4th Dynasty–Old Kingdom) with king Khafre’s (or Chephren’s) pyramid behind. Bottom: opencut and gallery workings at Zawyet Nasr on Gebel Mokattam (L5, Old and/or Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom) close to Cairo’s Citadel. The latter quarry also providedstone for mosques and other buildings of medieval Islamic Cairo (insert). Photos by Per Storemyr.10
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 2. Limestone quarries in the Nile Valley. Top: open-cut (left) and gallery (right) workings at Qaw el-Kebir (L75, Old and/or Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom, andPtolemaic to Roman) near ancient Antaeopolis. Middle left: gallery workings at El-Dibabiya (L91, 19th Dynasty–New Kingdom, 21st Dynasty–3rd Intermediate Period, andRoman). Middle right: open-cut workings at Beni Hasan (L21, Old and/or Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom, and Roman) near the famous Beni Hasan tombs. Bottom:open-cut workings at Zawyet el-Amwat (L16, New Kingdom to Roman) in the Zawyet Sultan district. Photos by James Harrell.11
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 3. Limestone quarry in western Thebes, near Luxor. Top: aerial view of western Thebes with the Wadi el-Muluk quarry (L85, 18th Dynasty–New Kingdom, 26thDynasty–Late Period, and Roman) at the arrow. Bottom and middle right insert: open-cut and gallery workings in the Wadi el-Muluk quarry. Note the red lines on the galleryceiling in the insert, which mark the progress of the ancient quarrymen. Middle left insert: queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri, which was built with limestone fromthe Wadi el-Muluk quarry. Photos by Per Storemyr.12
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 4. Sandstone quarries in the Nile Valley. Top: open-cut workings at Naq el-Fugani (S12, Ptolemaic), just north of Aswan. Bottom: open-cut workings at Nag el-Hosh(S6, Ptolemaic to Roman) just north of Kom Ombo. Insert: open-cut workings at El-Mahamid (S2, Old and/or Middle Kingdom, and Ptolemaic), near ancient El-Kab.Photos by Per Storemyr except the insert, which is by James Harrell.13
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 5. Stone temples. Top: Philae sandstone temple (Ptolemaic–Roman) near Aswan as seen in the early 1900s before its removal to higher ground on a nearby island following the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971. Stone for this temple came from the Qertassi quarry (S20), now under Lake Nasser. Bottom right: Hibis sandstonetemple (Late Period) in Kharga Oasis, with the stone probably coming from the Gebel el-Teir quarry (S32). Bottom left: calcareous-sandstone temple at Qasr el-Sagha innorthern Faiyum (Middle Kingdom), with the stone coming from a quarry probably nearby but not yet identified. Photos by Per Storemyr except the top one, which is fromAmerican Colony Jerusalem Collection (1900–1920, PPOC, digital ID: http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/matpc.01580).14
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 6. Softstone quarrying technology: Top: vertical trenches and undercuts for sandstone blocks in the Gebel el-Silsila quarry (S9b, Middle to New Kingdom, and Ptolemaic to Roman). Bottom: dressed (chiseled) quarry face in sandstone at the Nag el-Hosh quarry (S6, Ptolemaic to Roman). Lower right insert: bedrock surface after removal oflimestone blocks by trenching and undercutting in the Giza quarry beside the king Khafre (or Chephren) pyramid (L2, 4th Dynasty–Old Kingdom). Photos by Per Storemyr.15
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 7. Map showing an ancient quarry landscape covering about 100 km2 in the Aswan area, with quarries for granite and granodiorite in Aswan (H6); dolerite in Aswan(H37–38); silicified sandstone at Wadi Abu Aggag (H4), Gebels Gulab and Tingar (H5), and Wadi Abu Subeira (H36); and normal (non-silicified) sandstone at numerouslocalities (S12–13, S16–18, and S38). Map by Per Storemyr based on a survey by the QuarryScapes project as well as on Harrell and Madbouly (2006) for Wadi Abu Aggagand Klemm and Klemm (1993) for the Aswan granite/granodiorite quarries. A Landsat satellite image (ca. 2000) is used as background.16
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nmental stones were not available. Alongthe Red Sea coast, the temples and otherimportant buildings of the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods were built with blocks ofanhydrite and gypsum.Nearly all the limestone came fromTertiary formations (mainly Eocene butalso Paleocene and Pliocene) with theancient quarries located in the hills andcliffs bordering the Nile Valley betweenCairo in the north and Isna in the south.Some limestone, of Quaternary age,was also quarried along the Nile Delta’sMediterranean coast west of Alexandria.Quarries in the Nile Valley from Isnasouthward into northern Sudan supplied the sandstone, which came fromthe Cretaceous Nubia Group. Anhydriteand gypsum were obtained from Egypt’sRed Sea coast, where they occur in various Miocene formations, and gypsumalso came from Eocene outcrops in theFaiyum region of the Western Desert.Figure 8. Map of the Kom Ombo area showing thesandstone quarries at Gebel el-Silsila (S9a, b, Middleto New Kingdom, Ptolemaic to Roman), Nag el-Hammam (S8, S35, Middle and/or New Kingdom), Wadiel-Shatt el-Rigal (S7, Middle to New Kingdom), andNaq el-Hosh (S6, Ptolemaic to Roman). The uniquelocation of Gebel el-Silsila, on both sides of the Nilein a narrow ‘semi-cataract’ zone, is undoubtedlythe reason why this area was developed into ancientEgypt’s largest sandstone quarry. Map by Per Storemyrbased on an outline of quarries in Klemm and Klemm(1993) with the background image from Image Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA–Johnson SpaceCenter (‘The Gateway to Astronaut Photography ofEarth,’ sion ISS018&roll E&frame 15496).Ornamental stonesIn contrast to the plain-looking buildingstones, those employed for ornamentalpurposes have attractive colors and patterns, and also take a good polish dueto their greater hardness or, in the caseof travertine and gypsum, their coarselycrystalline character (Figures 7, 10–29).The principal applications of these stonesand their periods of use are as follows:(1) External veneer on pyramids: OldKingdom—granite, and granodiorite.(2) Pyramid capstones: Old and MiddleKingdoms—granodiorite, and possiblybasalt. (3) Linings of burial chambersand passages in pyramids and mastabatombs: Early Dynastic Period throughMiddle Kingdom—granite, granodiorite, and silicified sandstone. (4) Doorlintels, jambs, and thresholds of temples:Early Dynastic through Roman Periods—granite, granodiorite, and silicifiedsandstone. (5) Temple pavements: OldKingdom—basalt and travertine. (6)Temple columns: Old and Middle Kingdoms—granite. (7) Internal wall veneer,pavement, and columns for temples andother buildings: Roman Period—andesite–dacite porphyry, granite, granodiorite, metaconglomerate, metagabbro, me-tagraywacke, pegmatitic diorite, quartzdiorite, rhyolite porphyry, tonalite gneiss,and trachyandesite porphyry. (8) Basins:Roman Period—granite, andesite–daciteporphyry, and tonalite gneiss. (9) Barqueshrines: Middle and New Kingdoms—granite, silicified sandstone, and travertine. (10) Small statue shrines (naoi):Old Kingdom through Roman Period—granite, granodiorite, metagraywacke,and silicified sandstone; and Late Periodonly—dolerite porphyry. (11) Obelisks:New Kingdom and Roman Period—granite; and New Kingdom only—metagraywacke, and silicified sandstone.(12) Offering tables: Old Kingdomthrough Roman Period—granite, granodiorite, metagraywacke, silicified sandstone, and travertine. (13) Small vesselsand figurines: Late Predynastic Periodthrough Old Kingdom—andesite porphyry, anorthosite–gabbro gneiss, basalt,granite, metagraywacke, obsidian, pegmatitic diorite, quartz rock crystal, redand-white limestone breccia, gypsum,serpentinite, silicified (petrified) wood,travertine (the most commonly usedstone), tuff, and tuffaceous limestone;and Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period only—blue anhydrite(a stone different from the white anhydrite used in construction). (14) Canopic jars: Old Kingdom through RomanPeriod—travertine. (15) Sarcophagi:Old Kingdom through Roman Period—granite, granodiorite, metagraywacke,and silicified sandstone; Old throughNew Kingdoms only—travertine; NewKingdom through Late Period only—metaconglomerate; and Late Periodonly—basalt. (16) Small to colossal statues and other sculptures: Early Dynasticthrough Roman Periods—granite, granodiorite, metagraywacke, red-and-whitelimestone breccia, silicified sandstone,and travertine; Old and Middle Kingdoms only—anorthosite-gabbro gneiss;early New Kingdom only—marble, andpyroxenite; Late Period only—doleriteporphyry; Late through Roman Periodsonly—basalt, and metaconglomerate;and Roman Period only—andesite–dacite porphyry. (17) Scarab and shabtifigures: New Kingdom through Roman17
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrPeriod—metagraywacke, serpentinite,soapstone (steatite), and travertine. (18)Stelae: Old Kingdom through RomanPeriod—granite, granodiorite, metagraywacke, and silicified sandstone; andLate Period only—metaconglomerate.(19) Cosmetic and ceremonial palettes:Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods: metagraywacke. Note that manyof the above objects were also carvedfrom non-ornamental limestone andsandstone.During the Dynastic and PtolemaicPeriods, most of the ornamental stonewas quarried in the Aswan region (granite, granodiorite, and silicified sandstone)with other smaller quarries located nearCairo (silicified sandstone), in the Western Desert’s Faiyum (basalt) and AbuSimbel/Toshka area (anorthosite–gabbrogneiss), and in the Eastern Desert’s RedSea Hills (marble, metaconglomerate,metagraywacke, and dolerite porphyry).The travertine came from quarries justeast of the Nile Valley and from the sameEocene limestone formations supplyingbuilding stones, where it occurs as caveand fissure fillings. The red-and-whitelimestone breccia also came from thesesame formations, where it occurs alongfaults, but no definite quarries have yetbeen found. Similarly, no quarries areknown for the pyroxenite, serpentinite,and soapstone used in pre-Roman times.The many varieties of hardstones employed for vessels came mainly from theRed Sea Hills, where only a few of thequarries have so far been discovered. Thebasalt and gypsum also used for vesselscame from the Faiyum–Cairo region,and the blue anhydrite, which is notknown to occur in Egypt, may have beenimported. Many of the same quarriesfor ornamental stones continued to beworked during the Roman Period, butmost of the activity at this time involvednew quarries producing a wide varietyof attractive igneous and metamorphicrocks in the Red Sea Hills.GemstonesThe ancient Egyptians used gemstonesfor beads, pendants, amulets, inlays, andseals (Figure 30). The materials most18commonly employed during the Dynastic Period include: amazonite, carnelian(the most popular stone) and the closelyrelated sard, red jasper, red garnet, lapislazuli (the most valuable stone and imported from Afghanistan), colorless (rockcrystal) quartz, and turquoise. Othersoccasionally used in this period werebanded and sardonyx agate, amethyst(especially during the Middle Kingdom),bluish-white chalcedony, black hematite,yellow jasper (New Kingdom only), malachite, obsidian (imported from an unknown southern Red Sea or Ethiopiansource), and white (milky) quartz. During the Greco–Roman Period the samegemstones were used, but there werealso new ones, including emerald (greenberyl), peridot (olivine) and, importedfrom India, aquamarine (bluish-greenberyl), onyx agate, and sapphire (bluecorundum). With the exceptions notedabove, all these gemstones are thoughtto come from Egyptian sources, but theonly known quarries are for amazonite,amethyst, carnelian, emerald, peridot,and turquoise. All the native gemstonescome from the Precambrian basementrocks with the exceptions of turquoiseand some malachite, which are found insandstone of Jurassic age.Utilitarian stonesPerhaps the most heavily used of all theEgyptian stones is chert (or flint, Figure31). From Predynastic times onward itwas employed for tools (awls, adzes,knife and sickle blades, axe and pickheads, choppers, drill bits, and scrapers)and weapons (dagger blades, and spearand arrow points). Even when metals(copper, bronze, and later iron) becamecommonplace for these applications,chert was still a popular low-cost alternative. For tools and weapons requiringthe sharpest edges, imported obsidianwas employed. A wide variety of stones,especially hard ones (including many ofthe aforementioned ornamental varieties), were used for the heads of maces, aclub-like weapon.From Late Predynastic times into theLate Period, the quarrying and much ofthe carving of hard ornamental stoneswas done with tools fashioned fromtough, fracture-resistant rocks such asdolerite and others as discussed in a latersection (Figure 16). These same rockswere also employed as grinding stones forsmoothing rough, carved stone surfaces.The actual polishing of these surfaces wasprobably done with ordinary, quartz-richsand of which Egypt abounds. For thesofter sandstone and limestone, picks ofchert (as well as metal tools) were employed. Grinding stones for grain havebeen used throughout Egyptian historyand were usually carved from the samegranite, granodiorite, and silicified sandstone employed for ornamental applications (Figure 31). During the Ptolemaicand Roman Periods, grinding stonesmade from imported vesicular basaltwere popular.In medieval Islamic times, Egypthad numerous quarries in the EasternDesert for soapstone (steatite), whichwas carved into oil lamps and especiallycooking vessels (Figures 32–33). Someof these quarries were also worked during the Roman Period. Eye shadowmade from finely ground galena (darkgray) and malachite (green) was usedby both Egyptian men and women. Thegrinding was done on cosmetic palettescarved mainly from metagraywacke.Egyptian temples and tombs were richlypainted with bright primary colors often made from ground minerals: azuriteand lapis lazuli (blue), goethite ochreand orpiment (yellow), gypsum and calcite (white), hematite ochre and realgar(red), and malachite (green). With theexceptions of chert (occurring as nodulesin the Eocene limestones) and silicifiedsandstone (coming from the CretaceousNubia Group), essentially all the utilitarian stones were derived from the Precambrian basement rocks.Ancient Egyptian quarryingtechnologyIn considering the quarrying methodsemployed by the ancient Egyptians, itis useful to first distinguish between the‘hardstones’ (essentially all the igneous
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 9. Gebel el-Silsila sandstone quarry (S9a, b, Middle to New Kingdom, Ptolemaic to Roman) and its products. Top: view from the east bank across part of the quarrywith the west bank workings visible on the other side of the Nile River and the New Kingdom harbor (now filled with vegetation) in the foreground. Bottom left: Ptolemaic toRoman open-cut workings on the east bank. Bottom lower right: Middle Kingdom gallery workings on the east bank. Bottom upper right: sphinxes carved from Gebel el-Silsilasandstone on the avenue joining the Luxor and Karnak temples in Luxor. Photos by Per Storemyr except the bottom left one, which is by James Harrell.19
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 10. Selected stones from ancient quarries in the Nile Valley and Western Desert. The numbering and sequence of the images follow the list of quarries on the reverse sideof the attached, fold-out map. Not all quarries and rock varieties are represented. Photos by James Harrell.20
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 11. Selected stones from ancient quarries in the Eastern Desert. For further explanation see caption to Figure 10. Photos by James Harrell.21
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 12. Travertine and gypsum quarries. Top: open-cut workings following a travertine vein in Wadi el-Garawi (T1, Old Kingdom) near Helwan. Bottom: open-cutworkings in gypsum at Umm el-Sawan (O1, Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom) in northern Faiyum. Insert: originally underground and later open-cut workings in a travertinecave deposit at Hatnub (T8, 4th–6th Dynasty–Old Kingdom, 12th Dynasty–Middle Kingdom, 18th Dynasty–New Kingdom, and Roman) near El-Amarna. Photos by JamesHarrell except the bottom one, which is by Per Storemyr.22
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 13. Hardstone quarries in the Eastern Desert: Top: dolerite porphyry quarry in Rod el-Gamra (H31, 30th Dynasty–Late Period) with roughed-out shrines or naoi atthe entrance to the quarry cut. Middle right: tuff and tuffaceous limestone quarry on Gebel Manzal el-Seyl (H10, Early Dynastic). Middle left: pegmatitic diorite quarry inWadi Umm Shegilat (H17, Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic, and Roman). Bottom: metagraywacke quarry in Wadi Hammamat (H28a, Late Predynastic to Roman).Photos by Per Storemyr except the middle left and bottom ones, which are by James Harrell.23
n James A. Harrell and Per StoremyrFigure 14. Basalt in Old Kingdom temple pavements used to symbolize kmt (the ‘black land’), Egypt’s ancient name and a reference to the dark organic-rich, life-giving soil ofthe Nile floodplain. Top: pyramid temple of king Sahura at Abu Sir (5th Dynasty). Lower left insert: pyramid temple of king Khufu (or Cheops) at Giza (4th Dynasty). Lowerright insert, top: pyramid temple of king Niuserra at Abu Sir (5th Dynasty). Lower right insert, bottom: pyramid temple of king Userkaf at Saqqara (5th Dynasty). The basaltfor these pavements came from the Widan el-Faras quarry in the northern Faiyum (H2, see also Figures 21–23). The pyramid temples and associated monuments are excellentplaces to study the Old Kingdom use of stone for ornamental and architectural purposes. In addition to basalt, there is granite and granodiorite, silicified sandstone, travertineand fine limestone with splendid reliefs. Photos by Per Storemyr with plans of pyramid complexes after Lehner (1997).24
Ancient Egyptian quarries – an illustrated overview nFigure 15. Stone sculptures. Top left: New Kingdom (Amarna Period) head of queen Nefertiti in silicified sandstone, quarry unknown (Egyptian Museum, Cairo). Top right:Late Period statue of Osiris in metagraywacke from Wadi Hammamat (Egyptian Museum, Cairo). Middle left: Ptolemaic statue of a priest in basalt, probably from Widan elFaras (Egyptian Museum, Cairo). Middle center: New Kingdom statuette in glazed soapstone (steatite), quarry unknown (Louvre, P
Ancient Egyptian quarries database Just over 200 ancient quarries are known from Egypt, and these range in age from the Late Predynastic to the Late Roman Period, a span of about 3500 years (see Table 2 for the chronology of ancient Egypt). The attached map shows their distribution and provides, on the back,
ed outsider: is there any hope for ancient Egyptian quarries in the future? Through selected case studies, this essay describes the fate of ancient Egyptian stone quarries over the last 50 years. It focusses on the many-sided causes of destruction and neglect of these important archaeological sites in an attempt at raising key conservation issues.
One of the goals is to evaluate the meaning of ancient Egyptian martial art in the context of culture and army. Based on this analysis will be attempted to create a reconstruction of ancient Egyptian wrestling as a sport together with a possible outline of rules. A comparison of ancient Egyptian wrestling to modern form of fight in present-day .
through Jesus Christ, "the author and finisher of our faith." (Heb 12:2) Corresponding Egyptian God and Goddess to the type of plague: Hapi- Egyptian God of the Nile This Egyptian God was a water bearer. Egyptian Plague- Water Turned to Blood The first plague that was given to the Egyptians from God was that of turning the water to blood.
3. mathematics in ancient egypt 3.1. simple numbers and operations 3.2. a calendar for the seasons 3.2.1. a stellar method 3.2.2. religion and the stars 3.3. star clocks and shadow clocks 4. ancient egyptian constellations 4.1. the northern group 4.2. the southern group 4.3. the egyptian zodiac of dendera 4.4. egyptian planet gods 5. aligned .
In the article “Ancient Egypt,” go to the tab called “More Information.” Click on “Activities” and “Count like an Ancient Egyptian.” Read the instructions and use the ancient Egyptian numerals to answer the questions below. 19. Using Egyptian numerals, write your age in years. 20. Using
Egyptian artifacts on display in western North America, the museum allows guests the chance to examine the fascinating objects and ritual items the Egyptians used in their everyday lives. The museum has over 4,000 authentic ancient artifacts on display and is the only Egyptian museum in the world housed in authentic Egyptian style architecture.
much about Ancient Near Eastern archaeology. This provided me with a good amount of background knowledge of Greco-Roman and Egyptian civilisations, together with an understanding of ancient Egyptian beliefs regarding the afterlife. Professor Scheepers guided me in my formulation of ideas, which came to focus on a comparison between Egyptian and .
Cambridge IGCSE ACCOUNTING 0452/22 Paper 2 May/June 2020 MARK SCHEME Maximum Mark: 120 Published Students did not sit exam papers in the June 2020 series due to the Covid-19 global pandemic. This mark scheme is published to support teachers and students and should be read together with the question paper. It shows the requirements of the exam. The answer column of the mark scheme shows the .
