Memory - MR. CUMMINGS SOCIAL STUDIES
Memory
Memory Information-Processing ModelLevels of Processing ModelEncodingStorageRetrievalForgettingMemory ConstructionBiological MechanismsMemory Improvement
Information-Processing Model 3-Stage Processing Model– created by Atkinson & Shiffrin
Levels of Processing Model Shallow Processing: encoding ofsuperficial sensory information Deep Processing: attach meaning toinformation; create associations betweennew memory and existing memories Automatic Processing: unconsciousencoding of information that occurswithout thought Effortful Processing: encoding thatrequires our attention and conscious effort
Encoding Process of getting info into our memory– From Sensory Memory to STM (attention)– From STM to LTM (encoding)– Filter Theory unimportant info is dropped and relevant info isencoded into the next stage
Types of Encoding Visual Encoding: encoding of pictureimages– Imagery– Mnemonic Devices: memory tricks orstrategies to make info easier to remember(some which use imagery) Method of Loci: uses visualization with familiarobjects on a path to recall information in a list Peg Word System: uses association of terms to beremembered with a memorized scheme
Types of Encoding Acoustic Encoding: encoding of sound,especially the sound of words Semantic Encoding: encoding of meaning,including the meaning of words– Self-Referent Encoding: relating new info toourselves to better remember it
Storage Retaining information which has beenencoded– Sensory Memory– Short Term Memory (STM)– Long Term Memory (LTM)
Storage Sensory Memory– immediate, very brief recording of sensoryinfo. in the memory system– Iconic Memory: momentary sensory memoryof visual stimuli; photographic or pictureimage memory lasting no more than fewtenths of second– Echoic Memory: momentary sensory memoryof auditory stimuli; lasts 3 or 4 seconds
Storage Short-Term Memory– activated memorythat holds a few itemsbriefly before the infois stored or forgotten– Working Memory: active 3-part memorysystem which temporarily holds info, &consists of a phonological loop, visual-spatialworking memory, & the central executive(decision-making & cognitive skills)– Lasts about 30 seconds, holds 7 2 items
Storage Short-Term Memory– Chunking: grouping info into meaningfulunits, decreases necessary capacity of memory– Rehearsal: repetition of info to maintain it inSTM or encode it for storage Maintenance Rehearsal: repetition that keeps infoin STM about 2o seconds Elaborative Rehearsal: repetition that createsassociations between memory & existing memoriesstored in LTM
Storage Long-Term Memory– relatively permanent and limitless storehouseof the memory system– includes knowledge, skills, and experiences– Retrospective Memory: memory of things inthe past– Prospective Memory: memory of things in thefuture
Storage Types of Long Term Memory– Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory) LTM for facts & experiences we consciously knowand can verbalize Hippocampus involved in conversion to LTM Semantic Memory: facts & general knowledge Episodic Memory: personally experienced events Flashbulb Memory: vivid memory of emotionalevent
Storage Types of Long Term Memory– Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative Memory) LTM for skills & procedures whose retention isindependent of conscious recollection Cerebellum involved in conversion to LTM andstorage Procedural Memory: tasks we perform with andwithout thinking Conditioning: classical & operant conditioningassociations of stimuli
Storage Organizing Long Term Memories– Hierarchies: systems in which concepts arearranged from more general to more specificclasses– Concepts: mental representations of relatedthings Prototype: most typical example of a concept– Semantic Networks: system which linksconcepts to other concepts
Storage Organizing Long Term Memories– Schemas: preexisting mental frameworks thatstart as basic operations, then get morecomplex as we gain additional information Enable us to organize and interpret newinformation Scripts: schemas for events
Retrieval Getting information out of memorystorage Retrieval Tasks– Recognition: identification of learned itemswhen they are presented– Recall: retrieval of previously learned infowithout cues– Relearning: assesses amount of time saved(method of savings) when learning materialfor a second time
Retrieval Retrieval Cues– stimuli that provide a trigger to get an itemout of memory storage– Priming: activating specific associations inmemory either consciously or unconsciously– Mood-Dependent/Congruent Memory:tendency to recall memories consistent withcurrent mood
Retrieval Retrieval Cues– Context-Dependent Memory: when thecontext in which info was learned can help inretrieval later– State-Dependent Memory: tendency to recallmemories consistent with current internalstate
Retrieval Serial Position Effect– when recalling a list, it is easiest to rememberthe first and last items on the list Middle items are the first forgotten, then the lastitems are forgotten, and memory for the first itemslasts in memory the longest– Primacy Effect: better recall of the first itemson a list– Recency Effect: better recall of the last items ona list Initially, last items are best recalled (related to STM)
Retrieval Spacing Effect– Tendency for distributed study or practice toyield better long-term retention than isachieved through massed study or practice– Distributed Practice: spreading outmemorization of info or skills over severalsessions; typically produces better retrievalthan massed practice– Massed Practice: cramming memorizationinto one session
Forgetting Amnesia– Infantile Amnesia: inability to recall explicitmemory before the age of 2 or 3– Retrograde Amnesia: inability to recallinformation before a physical trauma;problems with retrieving LTM– Anterograde Amnesia: inability to recallinformation after a physical trauma;problems converting info from STM to LTM– Dissociative Amnesia: inability to rememberdue to emotional trauma; no physical cause
Forgetting Encoding Failure (Absent-mindedness)– Information is never properly encoded, so itnever becomes part of LTM Storage Failure (Transcience)– Storage decay over time;unused memories fade– Forgetting Curve much of what we learn wequickly forget Research done by Hermann Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Retrieval Failure– Inability to draw out of memory previouslyencoded and stored items– Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: inability toaccess info., even though it is in LTM– Proactive Interference: disruptive effect ofprior learning on the recall of newerinformation– Retroactive Interference: disruptive effect ofnew learning on the recall of olderinformation
Forgetting Motivated Forgetting– Repression: banishes from consciousnessanxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, andmemories
Memory Construction Memory does not work like a recorder;memories are subjective and can beinfluenced my many things, including ourcurrent state of mind and opinions– Misinformation Effect: incorporation ofmisleading information into memories of agiven event– Source Amnesia/Misattribution Error:attributing to wrong source an event we haveexperienced, heard, read about, or imagined
Memory Construction Confabulation: filling in gaps in memorywith information made up or from othersources (“honest lying”) Rosy Retrospection: tendency to rate pastevents more positively than when theevent occurred Elizabeth Loftus & Eyewitness Testimony
Biological Mechanisms Parts of the Brain Involved– Thalamus helps encode info from sensory memory into STM– Hippocampus involved in converting info from STM to LTM processes explicit memories– Cerebellum processes and stores implicit memories– Amygdala involved in storage of emotional memories
Biological Mechanisms Connectionism– memory is stored throughoutthe brain in connectionsbetween neurons, many ofwhich work together for asingle memory– Long-Term Potentiation:increase in efficiency withwhich signals sent acrosssynapses within neuralnetworks of LTM
Biological Mechanisms Hormones & Memory– Strength of emotion is correlated with thestrength of a memory (due to release of stresshormones)– Release of stress hormones can also blockretrieval of older memories Neurotransmitters– Neurotransmitter release triggers a memory;fewer neurotransmitters are needed to triggera memory once LTP has occurred
Memory Improvement Strategies to Improve Memory– Study repeatedly (distributed practice)– Make the information meaningful (semanticencoding)– Activate retrieval cues– Use mnemonic devices– Minimize interference– Get more sleep– Test yourself repeatedly, it’ll reinforce whatyou already know and show you what you don’t
Sensory Memory –immediate, very brief recording of sensory info. in the memory system –Iconic Memory: momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than few tenths of second –Echoic Memory: momentary sensory memory o
In memory of Paul Laliberte In memory of Raymond Proulx In memory of Robert G. Jones In memory of Jim Walsh In memory of Jay Kronan In memory of Beth Ann Findlen In memory of Richard L. Small, Jr. In memory of Amalia Phillips In honor of Volunteers (9) In honor of Andrew Dowgiert In memory of
Memory Management Ideally programmers want memory that is o large o fast o non volatile o and cheap Memory hierarchy o small amount of fast, expensive memory -cache o some medium-speed, medium price main memory o gigabytes of slow, cheap disk storage Memory management tasks o Allocate and de-allocate memory for processes o Keep track of used memory and by whom
heart torn out. Cummings' "realities sonnets," as well as much of the mod-ernist verse of Cummings' major contemporaries, explore the texture of just such a "heartless" psychology and social scenario.1 II Pararhyme has a range of forms and effects. First, because of the com-
of Cummings’ most critically acclaimed avant-gardist experiments is the poem “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r,” first published in 1932 in the inaugural issue of William Carlos Williams’ short-lived revival of the little magazine Con-tact and collected in Cummings’ sixth bookofpoems, No Thanks 2(1935).
image, color, printing layout and so on. The following will take E.E. Cummings' visual poem . L (a as an example to elaborate the meaning construction of different modes of this poem. l(a . l(a . le . af . fa . ll . s) one . l . iness . Most of E. E Cummings' poems have only one sentence, in which a
ering it. In fact, they had mutinied. The typesetters claimed they were of-fended by Cummings¶ critical assessment of Russia under communism, and they threw down their tools, indignant, in working-class solidarity. Cummings biographers routinely repeat this yarn.1 Its possible, however—maybe its likely—that rank-and-file printers
The Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine is one of eight schools that make up Tufts University. In addition to a handful of collaborative and multidisciplinary degrees, the school is the only institution in New England to offer a Doctorate in Veterinary Medicine. The Cummings School is located in the towns of Grafton and Westborough, MA on a
GENERAL MARKING ADVICE: Accounting Higher Solutions. The marking schemes are written to assist in determining the “minimal acceptable answer” rather than listing every possible correct and incorrect answer. The following notes are offered to support Markers in making judgements on candidates’ evidence, and apply to marking both end of unit assessments and course assessments. Page 3 .
