Fourteenth Edition Earth Science

vFind Smart Figures and Mobile Field Trip Figures10.29 India’s Continued Northward Migration Severely Deformed Much of China andSoutheast Asia (p. 335)10.30 Formation of the Appalachian Mountains (p. 336)10.31 The Valley and Ridge Province (p. 337)10.33 The Effects of Isostatic Adjustment and Erosion on Mountainous Topography(p. 340)Chapter 1111.711.811.1311.1811.21Inclusions (p. 352)Formation of an Angular Unconformity (p. 352)Applying Principles (p. 355)Fossil Assemblage (p. 360)Radioactive Decay Curve (p. 362)Chapter 1212.4 Major Events That Led to the Formation of Early Earth (p. 378)12.10 Growth of Large Continental Masses Through the Collision and Accretion ofSmaller Crustal Fragments (p. 383)12.12 The Major Geologic Provinces of North America and Their Ages in Billions ofYears (Ga) (p. 384)12.16 Connection Between Oceans Circulation and the Climate in Antarctica (p. 386)12.28 Relationships of Vertebrate Groups and Their Divergence from LobefinFish (p. 395)Chapter 1313.213.613.1213.19Distribution of Land and Water (p. 411)Satellite Altimeter (p. 413)Active Continental Margins (p. 418)Examples of Hydrogenous Sediment (p. 425)Chapter 1414.2 Variations in Surface Temperature and Salinity with Latitude (p. 435)14.8 Variations in Ocean-Water Density with Depth for Low- and High-LatitudeRegions (p. 438)14.12 Benthos (p. 441)14.16 Productivity in Temperate Oceans (Northern Hemisphere) (p. 446)14.19 Ecosystem Energy Flow and Efficiency (p. 448)Chapter 1515.215.515.1215.1615.1715.2115.3115.35Major Surface-Ocean Currents (p. 455)Coastal Upwelling (p. 457)Passage of a Wave (p. 462)Wave Refraction (p. 464)The Longshore Transport System (p. 465)Some Depositional Features (p. 467)East Coast Estuaries (p. 476)Tidal Patterns (p. 478)Chapter ly CO2 Concentrations (p. 489)Antarctic Ozone Hole (p. 490)The Changing Sun Angle (p. 495)Characteristics of the Solstices and Equinoxes (p. 497)The Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer (p. 500)Paths Taken by Solar Radiation (p. 503)The Greenhouse Effect (p. 504)Isotherms (p. 506)Monthly Mean Temperatures for Vancouver, British Columbia, and WinnipegManitoba (p. 507)16.32 The Daily Cycle of Temperature at Peoria, Illinois, for Two July Days (p. 509)16.34 World Mean Sea-Level Temperatures in July, in Celsius ( C) and Fahrenheit( F) (p. 511)A01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 5Chapter 1717.217.817.1317.1717.2017.2517.30Changes of State Involve an Exchange of Heat (p. 519)Map Showing Dew-Point Temperatures on a Typical September Day (p. 523)Surface Convergence Enhances Cloud Development (p. 527)Atmospheric Conditions That Result in Absolute Stability (p. 529)Classification of Clouds, Based on Height and Form (p. 532)Map Showing the Average Number of Days per Year with Heavy Fog (p. 537)Formation of Hailstones (p. 541)Chapter 1818.218.718.818.17Inches and Millibars (p. 553)Isobars on a Weather Map (p. 555)Coriolis Effect (p. 556)Idealized Global Circulation Proposed for the Three-Cell Circulation Model of aRotating Earth (p. 561)18.19 Sea and Land Breezes (p. 563)Chapter 1919.419.819.1119.1919.23Snowfall Map (p. 580)Cold Front (p. 582)Idealized Structure of a Large, Mature Midlatitude Cyclone (p. 584)Thunderstorm Development (p. 589)The Formation of a Mesocyclone Often Precedes Tornado Formation (p. 591)Chapter 2020.620.1620.1720.28Tropical Rain Forest (p. 613)Examples of E Climates (p. 621)Highland Climate (p. 622)Slope of the Shoreline (p. 632)Chapter 2121.3 Orientation of the Sun’s Rays at Syene (Aswan) and Alexandria, Egypt onJune 21 (p. 641)21.6 Ptolemy’s Explanation of Retrograde Motion (p. 643)21.15 Using a Telescope, Galileo Discovered That Versus Has Phases Like Earth’sMoon (p. 647)21.17 Orbital Motion of Earth and Other Planets (p. 649)21.20 Locating the North Star (Polaris) from the Pointer Stars in the BigDipper (p. 653)21.23 Precession of Earth’s Axis (p. 655)21.25 Phases of the Moon (p. 656)21.27 Lunar Eclipse (p. 658)Chapter 2222.122.322.722.1422.33Orbits of the Planets (p. 664)Bodies with Atmospheres Versus Airless Bodies (p. 667)Formation and Filling of Large Impact Basins (p. 670)Olympus Mons (p. 675)Meteor Crater, Near Winslow, Arizona (p. 688)Chapter 2323.323.623.1123.20Formation of the Three Types of Spectra (p. 697)The Doppler Effect (p. 700)Reflecting Telescope (p. 702)Diagram of the Sun’s Structure (p. 708)Chapter 2424.824.1024.1624.22Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram (p. 725)Evolutionary Stages of Stars Having Various Masses (p. 728)Spiral Galaxies (p. 734)Raisin Bread Analogy for an Expanding Universe (p. 737)25/10/13 11:40 AM

Contents1Introduction to Earth Science 3FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 3What Is Earth Science? 4Geology 4Oceanography 5Meteorology 5Astronomy 5Earth Science Is Environmental Science 5Scales of Space and Time in Earth Science 7The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 9Hypothesis 9GEO GRAPHICS EYE ON EARTH11EYE ON EARTH15Hydrosphere 16Atmosphere 16Biosphere 17EYE ON EARTH17Geosphere 18A Closer Look at the Geosphere 18Earth’s Internal Structure 18The Mobile Geosphere 20The Face of Earth 22Major Features of the Continents 23Major Features of the Ocean Basins 25EYE ON EARTHGEO GRAPHICS Gold38Why Atoms Bond 40The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds 40Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred 40Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing 40Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move 4110Solar System: Size and ScaleMatter and Minerals 33Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock 34Defining a Mineral 34What Is a Rock? 35Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals 36Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 36Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 36Early Evolution of Earth 12Origin of Planet Earth 12The Inner Planets Form 13The Outer Planets Develop 14Earth’s Spheres 14GEO GRAPHICS 2FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 33World Population Passes 7 Billion 10Theory 10Scientific MethodsUNIT ONE   EARTH MATERIALS 3225Earth as a System 26Earth System Science 26The Earth System 27Concepts in Review 28  Give It Some Thought 29 MasteringGeology 3142Properties of a Mineral 42Optical Properties 42Crystal Shape, or Habit 43Mineral Strength 44Density and Specific Gravity 46Other Properties of Minerals 46Mineral Groups 46Silicate Minerals 47EYE ON EARTH47Important Nonsilicate Minerals 50Natural Resources 52Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources 52Mineral Resources 52GEO GRAPHICS Gemstones54Concepts in Review 55  Give It Some Thought 56 MasteringGeology 573Rocks: Materials of theSolid Earth 59FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 59Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle 60The Basic Cycle 60Alternative Paths 60Igneous Rocks: “Formed by Fire” 62From Magma to Crystalline Rock 62Igneous Compositions 63What Can Igneous Textures Tell Us? 64Common Igneous Rocks 66How Different Igneous Rocks Form 69EYE ON EARTH69Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment 71Classifying Sedimentary Rocks 72Lithification of Sediment 75Features of Sedimentary Rocks 76Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old 78What Drives Metamorphism? 78A01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 625/10/13 11:40 AM

viiCONTENTSEYE ON EARTH79Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting 120Slump 120Rockslide 121Debris Flow 121Earthflow 122Slow Forms of Mass Wasting 122Creep 122Solifluction 123Concepts in Review 124  Give It Some Thought 127 MasteringGeology 129Metamorphic Textures 81Common Metamorphic Rocks 81Resources from Rocks and Minerals 83Metallic Mineral Resources 83GEO GRAPHICS Marble84Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 87Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels 87EYE ON EARTH895Concepts in Review 90  Give It Some Thought 92 MasteringGeology 93 UNIT TWO  SCULPTINGEARTH’S SURFACE 944Weathering, Soil,and Mass Wasting 95FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 95Earth’s External Processes 96Weathering 97GEO GRAPHICS Some Everyday Examples of Weathering 98102Rates of Weathering 104Rock Characteristics 104Climate 104Differential Weathering 104Soil 105An Interface in the Earth System 105What Is Soil? 106Soil Texture and Structure 106Controls of Soil Formation 107Parent Material 107Time 107Climate 108Plants and Animals 108Topography 108The Soil Profile 109Classifying Soils 110EYE ON EARTHEarth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle 132Earth’s Water 132Water’s Paths 132Storage in Glaciers 133Water Balance 133Running Water 133Drainage Basins 134River Systems 134Drainage Patterns 135Streamflow 136Factors Affecting Flow Velocity 136Changes from Upstream to Downstream 137The Work of Running Water 138Stream Erosion 138GEO GRAPHICS 101GEO GRAPHICS The Old Man of the MountainFOCUS ON CONCEPTS 131EYE ON EARTHMechanical Weathering 99Chemical Weathering 101EYE ON EARTHRunning Water and Groundwater 131What Are the Largest Rivers? 139Transportation of Sediment 140Deposition of Sediment 141Stream Channels 141Bedrock Channels 142Alluvial Channels 142Shaping Stream Valleys 144Base Level and Stream Erosion 144Valley Deepening 144Valley Widening 145Changing Base Level and Incised Meanders 145Depositional Landforms 147Deltas 147EYE ON EARTH147Natural Levees 148Alluvial Fans 149Floods and Flood Control 149Causes of Floods 149Flood Control 149111Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource 112Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity 114Landslides as Geologic Hazards 114The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development 114Slopes Change Through Time 114GEO GRAPHICS Landslides as Natural Disasters138GEO GRAPHICS Flash Floods 150115Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting 116The Role of Water 116Oversteepened Slopes 117Removal of Vegetation 117Earthquakes as Triggers 118Classifying Mass-Wasting Processes 118Type of Motion 118Rate of Movement 119EYE ON EARTHA01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 711925/10/13 11:40 AM

viiiCONTENTSGroundwater: Water Beneath the Surface 152The Importance of Groundwater 152Groundwater’s Geologic Roles 152Distribution of Groundwater 152EYE ON EARTH153Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater 154Groundwater Movement 155Springs, Wells, and Artesian Systems 155Springs 155Artesian Systems 157EYE ON EARTH158Environmental Problems of Groundwater 159Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource 159Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal 159Groundwater Contamination 160The Geologic Work of Groundwater 162Caverns 162Karst Topography 163Concepts in Review 165  Give It Some Thought 167 MasteringGeology 1696Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 171FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 171Glaciers and the Earth System 172Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles 172Valley (Alpine) Glaciers 172Ice Sheets 172Other Types of Glaciers 174How Glaciers Move 175Observing and Measuring Movement 175GEO GRAPHICS Antarctica Fact File176Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage 178Glacial Erosion 179How Glaciers Erode 180Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 180Glacial Deposits 183Types of Glacial Drift 183EYE ON EARTH183Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles 184Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames 186Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers 187Changing Rivers 187Crustal Subsidence and Rebound 187Proglacial Lakes Created by Ice Dams 188Sea-Level Changes 188Pluvial Lakes 189Extent of Ice Age Glaciation 189Causes of Ice Ages 190Plate Tectonics 190Variations in Earth’s Orbit 191Other Factors 191Deserts 192Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands 193Geologic Processes in Arid Climates 194Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Mountainous DesertLandscape 195EYE ON EARTH196Wind Erosion 197Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement 197Wind Abrasion 198Wind Deposits 198Loess 199Sand Dunes 199Types of Sand Dunes 200EYE ON EARTH201Concepts in Review 202  Give It Some Thought 205 MasteringGeology 207UNIT three7 FORCES WITHIN 208Plate Tectonics: A ScientificRevolution Unfolds 209FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 209From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics 210Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time 211Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle 211Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas 212Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features 213Evidence: Ancient Climates 214The Great Debate 215Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis 215The Theory of Plate Tectonics 216Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere 216Earth’s Major Plates 217Plate Boundaries 217Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading 218Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading 219Continental Rifting 220Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction 221Oceanic–Continental Convergence 222Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence 223Continental–Continental Convergence 224Transform Plate Boundaries 225How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change? 227The Breakup of Pangaea 227EYE ON EARTH227Plate Tectonics in the Future 228Testing the Plate Tectonics Model 229Evidence: Ocean Drilling 229Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 230Evidence: Paleomagnetism 231How Is Plate Motion Measured 234Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion 234Measuring Plate Motion from Space 236What Drives Plate Motions? 236Forces That Drive Plate Motion 236Models of Plate–Mantle Convection 237EYE ON EARTH238Concepts in Review 239  Give It Some Thought 242 MasteringGeology 243A01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 825/10/13 11:40 AM

ixCONTENTS8Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 245GEO GRAPHICS Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, ad 79FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 245What Is an Earthquake? 246Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes 247Aftershocks and Foreshocks 248Faults and Large Earthquakes 249EYE ON EARTH249Seismology: The Study of Earthquake WavesInstruments That Record Earthquakes 250Seismic Waves 251Determining the Size of Earthquakes 252Intensity Scales 252Magnitude Scales 253GEO GRAPHICS 250Finding the Epicenter of an Earthquake 255Earthquake Destruction 256Destruction from Seismic Vibrations 256Landslides and Ground Subsidence 258Fire 258EYE ON EARTH258What Is a Tsunami? 259Earthquake Belts and Plate Boundaries 261GEO GRAPHICS Historic Earthquakes East of the Rockies 262Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 264Short-Range Predictions 264Long-Range Forecasts 264GEO GRAPHICSRisks on the San Andreas Fault SeismicSystem 266Earth’s Interior 269Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure 269Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves 269Earth’s Layers 270Crust 270Mantle 271Core 271Concepts in Review 272  Give It Some Thought 274 MasteringGeology 2759Volcanoes and Other IgneousActivity 277FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 277Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea 278The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions 279Factors Affecting Viscosity 279Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions 280Materials Extruded During an Eruption 281Lava Flows 281Gases 283Pyroclastic Materials 283Anatomy of a Volcano 284GEO GRAPHICSof Three Types of Volcanic ComparisonCones 285Shield Volcanoes 286Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano 286Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano 287GEO GRAPHICS Cinder Cones290Kilauea’s East Rift Zone Eruption 288A01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 9Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone 290Composite Volcanoes 291292Volcanic Hazards 293Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature 294Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones 295Other Volcanic Hazards 295Other Volcanic Landforms 297Calderas 297Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus 299EYE ON EARTH299Volcanic Necks and Pipes 300Intrusive Igneous Activity 301Nature of Intrusive Bodies 301Nature ON EARTH301Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills 302Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths 303Partial Melting and the Origin of Magma 304Partial Melting 304Generating Magma from Solid Rock 304Decrease in Pressure: Decompression Melting 305Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity 306Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries 306Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries 307Intraplate Volcanism 307Concepts in Review 311  Give It Some Thought 313 MasteringGeology 31510Crustal Deformation andMountain Building 317FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 317Crustal Deformation 318What Causes Rocks to Deform? 318Types of Deformation 319Factors That Affect Rock Strength 320Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation 321Anticlines and Synclines 321EYE ON EARTH321Domes and Basins 322Monoclines 323Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by BrittleDeformation 325Dip-Slip Faults 325Strike-Slip Faults 326Joints 327Mountain Building 329Subduction and Mountain Building 330Island Arc–Type Mountain Building 330Andean-Type Mountain Building 330EYE ON EARTH331Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley 332Collisional Mountain Belts 332Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building 332Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions 334The Himalayas 334The Appalachians 335What Causes Earth’s Varied Topography? 337GEO GRAPHICS The Laramide Rockies338The Principle of Isostasy 340How High Is Too High? 340Concepts in Review 341  Give It Some Thought 343 MasteringGeology 34525/10/13 11:40 AM

xCONTENTS UNIT four   DECIPHERING EARTH’SHISTORY 34611FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 373Is Earth Unique? 374The Right Planet 374The Right Location 375The Right Time 375Viewing Earth’s History 375Birth of a Planet 377From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements 377From Planetesimals to Protoplanets 377Earth’s Early Evolution 377Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans 379Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere 379Oxygen in the Atmosphere 379Evolution of the Oceans 380Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents 381Earth’s First Continents 381Geologic Time 347FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 347A Brief History of Geology 348Catastrophism 348The Birth of Modern Geology 348Geology Today 349Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles 349The Importance of a Time Scale 349Numerical and Relative Dates 349Principle of Superposition 350Principle of Original Horizontality 350Principle of Lateral Continuity 351Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 351EYE ON EARTHEYE ON EARTH351EYE ON EARTHGEO GRAPHICS354355is Paleontology Different from HowArchaeology? 357Conditions Favoring Preservation 358Correlation of Rock Layers 358Correlation Within Limited Areas 358Fossils and Correlation 358Dating with Radioactivity 360Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure 361Radioactivity 361Half-Life 362Using Various Isotopes 362Dating with Carbon-14 363The Geologic Time Scale 364Structure of the Time Scale 365Precambrian Time 365GEO GRAPHICS Evolution of Life Through Geologic TimeEYE ON EARTH367Concepts in Review 369  Give It Some Thought 370393GEO GRAPHICS Demise of the DinosaursTerminology and the Geologic Time Scale 366Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata 366GEO GRAPHICS Did Humans and Dinosaurs Ever Coexist?392Vertebrates Move to Land 394Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates 394The Great Permian Extinction 395Eye on Earth  365EYE ON EARTH381The Making of North America 384Supercontinents of the Precambrian 384Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earth’sModern Continents 386Paleozoic History 386Mesozoic History 387Cenozoic History 389Earth’s First Life 390Origin of Life 390Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes 390Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes 391Early Paleozoic Life-Forms 391Principle of Inclusions 352Unconformities 352Applying Relative Dating Principles 354Fossils: Evidence of Past LifeTypes of Fossils 35612Earth’s Evolution ThroughGeologic Time 373368396Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs 398Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees 398Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky 398Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals 400From Reptiles to Mammals 400Marsupial and Placental Mammals 400Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion 401Large Mammals and Extinction 401Concepts in Review 403  Give It Some Thought 405 MasteringGeology 407UNIT five  THE GLOBAL OCEAN  40813The Ocean Floor 409FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 409The Vast World Ocean 410Geography of the Oceans 410Comparing the Oceans to the Continents 411An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor 411Mapping the Seafloor 411Provinces of the Ocean Floor 414Continental Margins 416Passive Continental Margins 416A01A TARB8092 14 FM pi-xvii NASTA.indd 1025/10/13 11:40 AM

xiCONTENTSEYE ON EARTH417EYE ON EARTHActive Continental Margins 419Features of Deep-Ocean Basins 419Deep-Ocean Trenches 419GEO GRAPHICS Explaining Coral Atolls: Darwin’s HypothesisAbyssal Plains 422Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor 422The Oceanic Ridge 423Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge 423Why Is the Oceanic Ridge Elevated? 423Seafloor Sediments 424Types of Seafloor Sediments 424Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data 425Resources from the Seafloor 426Energy Resources 426Other Resources 427EYE ON EARTH427Concepts in Review 428  Give It Some Thought 430 MasteringGeology 43114Ocean Water and Ocean Life 433FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 433Composition of Seawater 434Salinity 434Sources of Sea Salts 434Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity 435Recent Increase in Ocean Acidity 436Variations in Temperature and Density with DepthTemperature Variations 437Density Variations 437EYE ON EARTH436437EYE ON EARTHEYE ON EARTHEYE ON EARTH444Ocean

unit FiVe the gLoBAL oCeAn 408 13 The Ocean Floor 409 14 Ocean Water and Ocean Life 433 15 The Dynamic Ocean 453 unit SiX eArth’S dynAMiC AtMoSphere 484 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature 485 17 Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation 517 18 Air Pressure and Wind 5