The Political Economy Of Political Development: A Case Study Of .

Acknowledgment sI owe t h e oppo rtl.lll i ty to b e ass ociated with Sillimanfirs t of all to Professor P e t er G. Gowing , the foundingdi re c t or o f the University 's Southeas t As ian Studies Pro gram,who ext ended- the init ial invitation , and to his successor ,P rofessor Walter R. Fee , who actually got us to Dumaguet e .I am indeb t ed to the Un iversity f o r t h e app o intmen t an d t othe Fo rd Fowidat ion f o r an e s s an t ial supplement ary assistancethrough it s Southeast As ia Rese arch and Teachin g FellowshipProgram .The fieldwork was great ly facilitated by t he Univers i ty 'sspon sor ship .For this suppor t , which gave me acces s to thet op government officials in Negros Orient al and in the adj acen tprovince of Negro s Occiden tal , many o f whom were proud alunmio f the Univers ity , I am very grateful t o Pro fessor ProcesoU. Udarb e , Act ing President , and Pro fes s o r An gel C. Alcala ,Academi c Vice-Pres ident and Dire ctor o f the Research Center .Profes sor Timoteo S. Oracion , formerly h ead of the Departmento f Social Scien ces , also kindly opened many o f fi cial doorsfor me . Without except ion , all the o ff i cials I approachedwere very widers tanding and helpful , even durin g the uncertainfirst few mon ths of the New Society . At the risk o f emb ar ras s in g them , however , I want to record my special grat itudeto the Honorab le William V. Ville gas , Governor of Negro sOrien t al , and the Honorab le Jos e Pro Teves , Mayo r of Dumaguet eCity , fo r their personal int erest in what I was doin g .Finally , for their diligence and willingness t o d o a greatdeal of le g work , I am greatly indebt ed to my as s i s t ants ands t uden t s , Mr Alexander E . Calij an and Mr Mardonio M. Lau.Here at the Aust ralian National Univers ity , I am especiallygrat e ful to Professor E . K . Fisk for carefully readin g thef irs t three chap t ers . My thanks also go t o Mis s An gelaKouvelis for typ in g the draf t s .Mohd . A. NawawiCanberraNovember 1980xv

Abbre viationsB AEBureau of Agri cultural ExtensionB IRBureau of Int ernal RevenueCFICourt o f Fir s t Ins t an cePACDPre s i dent ial Arm for Connmm ity De velopmentxvi

Chap t er 1The s et t in gThe adminis t rative s tructureAn archipelago of more than 7000 island s , the Philippinescovers a land area o f only about 300 , 000 s quare kilome t re s .This f act helps to exp lain a distinct ive feature o f theRepub lic 's admin is t rat i ve s t ructure .Unlike the Indones ians ,the Filipinos , who are only ab out one-third as numerous , arel i ving in more t han twi ce as many provinces.There were atthe t ime of thi s s tudy s e vent y p ro vinces which in turncon t ained more than 6000 mtm icipalit ies an d cit ies an d almost30 , 000 barrios ( Corpuz , 19 7 1 : 2 4 ) .These provin ces weregrouped in to t en regions , the locat ion , populat ion , and landareas of which may be seen in Tab le 1 . 1 .Re gion s I t o VI , con tainin g 5 3 per cen t of the populat ionand co vering 4 8 per cen t o f the land are a , are e ither onLuzon o r are iden t if iab le with it , making the i s land pre eminent of the three main di vis ions of the archipelago .TheVis ayas and Mindanao , con s is t in g o f two region s each , co ver18 per cen t an d 34 per cent o f the land area and 2 5 p er centand 23 per cen t o f the total populat ion respect ively .In addit ion to the p ro vinces , c i t ies and municipalit ies ,there were other lo cal un i t s called sub-pro vin ces and muni cipal dis t rict s . Numb erin g s ix and ab out fifty respectivelyin 19 6 5 , thes e were 'areas whi ch do not have adequate resource sto exi s t independen t ly and are usually inhab ited by culturalminor it ies ' - ( Ocampo , 19 69 : 4 38) .The city was supposed to bedist inguished f rom the muni cipality chiefly by the size anddegree o f con cent r at ion o f populat ion and the level o f income .But this was not always the cas e .S ince a cha rt ered city wasadmin i s t rat i vely equivalent to a p ro vin ce and thus had moret axing powers than a mtm icipality wh ich was also required toshare s ome o f i t s re venues with the province , i t s creat ionwas s omet imes largely t he result of polit i cal manoeuvrin g .1

2Tab le 1 . 1Phili e eine regionsNo . o fP rov-.incesDes ignat ion/Locat ionPopula t ion Area1970( s q . km )Reg ion I :Manila and suburb s11 , 32 3 , 4 301 , 8 83Re gion II :!locos Valley andMotm t ain Provinces81 , 82 9 , 5 3 72 5 , 766Cagayan Valley andBatanes41 , 4 61 , 4042 6 , 838Region IV:Cen t ral Luzon75 , 09 4 , 3842 3 , 646Re gion V :Southern Luzon andis lands96 , 790 , 7024 6 , 09 2Region VI :B i col and Masbate62 , 9 64 , 4 3217 , 633Reg ion VI I :Wes t e rn Visayas63 , 76 7 , 2 1 321,579Re gion VII I : Eas t e rn Vi sayas85 , 40 8 , 5 4 93 2 ' 04 6103 , 011 , 90339 , 84584 , 93 8 , 5 1462 , 1546736 , 5 90 , 0682 9 7 , 382Region III :Re gion I X :Northe rn Min danaoRegion X:South Mindanaoand SuluTo t alNo t e :The tot al number o f p rovin ces was as o f the dat e o fthe census ; three s ub -p rovinces have att ained fullp rovincial s t atus s ince then . Man il a an d sub urb s maynot be re garded as a p rovince p roper .Sour ce s :B CS ( 19 70) an d LGC ( 19 7 3 ) .Al though the Philippines was generally re garded ashighly cent raliz e d , the provincial chief execut ives - thegovernors - were no t appointed by Man ila but were popularlyele ct ed local f igures .Likewise , the vice- governors as wellas t h e city and mtmicipal mayors and the ir deput ies weredepen dent on local vo ters .Each province , c ity , municip al it yand barrio a l s o featured a popularly e le c t e d assemb ly , boar dor council .The chairman o f th e barrio council was des i gnatedas the barrio capt ain .

30Balin tani. Channel. .PACIFIC0.China ""' Sea 'i'kilometresOCEANDVISAYASVo· GRO fflco.SuluSea9··.·)Q · :.---qoMINDANAOCelebes SeaNational -roadMunicipalboundarylNIMindanaoSeaMapNegros Oriental , showing i t s locat ion in thePhilipp ines50

4Negros OrientalThe province of Negros Oriental covers the south andsouthe astern part of the Vis ayan island of Negro s , sharingit with Negro s Occidental .The line b etween these twoprovin ces constitutes the only land b o\llld ary b etween Easternand Wes tern Vis ayas .Tab le i. 2Negros Oriental in comp arat ive p erspectivePhilippinescMedianaProvincebNegros Orien t alrank36 , 590 , 068389 , 5 9 07 15 , 2 4 01 6th2 9 7 , 3823 , 7945 , 7461 8th12 31241 2532n dUrb an populat ion(% 19 7o) d14301258thHous ing material :estron g/ mixed ( % )56603362ndInhab itant s permotor vehi cle f7615 712 82 7thPopulationLand area( sq . km) CPopulationdens ityc( sq . km)aCon s ider ing only full provinces exis t in g in 1 9 7 0 ,exclud in g Man ila .bAll the fi gure s are for the f ull province , including thesub-provin ce of Sequij or .cLGC ( 19 7 3 ) .dThe f igure fo r the Phil ippines as a who le come s from TancoThe other figures have been t aken from B CS( 1 9 70 : 100) .( 19 70 : Tab le 2 ) .eBCS ( 19 70 : Tab le 10 ) .Brick and wood are class if ied ass t rong while light building material s include n ipa , b amb ooan d gras s .' Mixed ' therefore re fers to mixture of s trongan d l ight material s .fJPS ( 19 7 l : Tabl e 5 . 8 , p . 4 9 ) .

5Table 1 . 2 compares Negros Orien t al with the other pro vinces .In terms of it s population and land area , the pro vince ranked quit e high , being the 16th and 18th largestprovince re spect ively , excludin g Manila.It s popul at ion wasactually one-third mo re t han the nat ional provin cial average .In terms o f populat ion den s it y , however , it s rank was onlyIn fact , it hadj us t above that o f the median province .almos t exactly the same dens ity as the median provin ce an dthe same numb er o f persons per square kilo me t re as thePhil ippines as a whole .It is in terms o f economic develo pment that NegrosOriental di ffered s igni fican tly from mo s t o f the other pro vin ces and the coun t ry as a whole .It was at the lowe r endo f the spect rum with re gard to the l evel o f urbanizat ion andthe qual ity o f housing .Eviden t ly mos t o f the inhab it an t sof the provin ce were poore r than mo st other Fil ipino s , althoughthe rich few , thanks perhaps t o the sugar indust ry in theprovin ce , were equally capab le of affording the luxury o fowning and us ing mo torized vehicles a s the ir count erpart selsewhere .Dumaguet e , the provin cial capit al , is also the onlyreally urb an cen tre in the provin ce .It s populat ion o f52 , 00 0 in 19 70 was s i gnif ican tly l arge r than tho s e o f theo the r two char t e red cit ies in the province , Bais and Canl aon ,which had 40 , 095 an d 2 3 , 59 8 inhab it an t s respect ively . More over , Dumaguete ' s larger populat ion i s concen t rated i a muchsmaller area so that· i t s den s ity of 9 32 per sons pe r s quarekilo met re was mo re than s ix t imes that o f either of the othertwo cit ie s (LGC , 1 9 7 3 ) .In fact , Bais and Canlaon were reallyl ittle more than rural market town s who se claim to city s t atuswas l argely b ased on the ir rel atively large revenues derivedfrom their sugar refineries and the surrounding sugarcan eplan tat ion s .Of the two , Bais , which is only about 80 kmfrom Dumaguete , was certainly the more impo rt an t . Made acity in 19 6 8 , it was the richest lo cal government unit inNegros Oriental .As ide from the three chart ered cit ies an d dire ctly underthe provin cial government of Negros Oriental were twen ty-twomuni c ipalit ies .As Tab le 1 . 3 shows , these un it s varied quites igni fi can t ly b o th in populat ion and land area .Tanj ay andBacon g , the two municipalit ies cho s en , represent ed the oppo s it eends of the spectrum .The former was generally re garded asthe mo s t progres s ive municipality , b oast in g not only o fenj oy in g the gre at e s t con centrat ion o f profess ional s an d

6Tab le 1 . 3The mun iciEalities o f Negro s Oriental :the ir areas , poEulation s and clas s ification sArea (ha)Amlan opul ation(19 70)Cl ass (19 7 3 )5 , 9 3511 , 5 4 74th1 5 , 36 32 3 , 1 654th2 , 5 0012 , 06 55thBasay34 , 35 38 , 2336thBayawan9 6 , 02 444 , 6153rdB indoy1 7 , 36 818 , 3344thDauin11 , 40613 , 5 334thGuihulngan33 , 76 77 2 ' 9 69lst ( 6 )Jimalalud13 , 94818 , 5684thLa Lib ertad13 ' 9642 9 , 6933rdMab inay14 , 2 5 733 , 7854thManj uyod2 6 , 45 92 0 , 5454thPamplona2 0 , 2 192 0 , 5413rdSan Jos e5 , 44 48 , 84 05thSta Catalina5 2 , 31439 , 6014thSiaton33 , 59 326 , 9634thS ib ulan16 , 2 9 916 , 8614thTanj ay5 3 , 92 55 1 , 45 8lst ( 5 )Tay as an15 , 4 192 0 , 1 324thValencia14 , 8 341 3 , 31 84thVallehe rmo s o15 , 2 9 42 0 , 41 84th8 55411 , 3 854 th5212239536,569Ayun gonBacongZamb o angitaTotalaa On the b as is o f their average publ ic revenues durin g the twopreceding years , mun icip al ities were clas s if ied into sevenclas se s . F irst- class muni c ipalities were further sub-dividedinto s ix grades . Thus Guihuln gan and Tanj ay were grade 6and grade 5 first- class muni cipalitie s re spectively .Source : P rovin cial Statistical O f fi ce , Dumaguete City .

7o ther highly educat ed ind ividual s but als o o f b eing the mo s tfert ile b reedin g ground o f such person s in the province .Al though one o f the oldes t s e t t lement s in th e area and th eclos e s t to Dumaguet e , Bacong , on the o t he r hand , was one o fSuch cont ras t re flectedthe mos t backward lo calitie s .dramat ically different economic condit ion s . As in dicated byit s f ir s t - class s t at us , Tanj ay was actually t he wealthiesttownship in Negros Oriental , while f ifth-clas s Bacon g wastmquest ionab ly one o f the poo rest muni cipal i t ie s .

Chapt er 2The p rovis ion of polit i cal goo dsIt is neit her pos s ib le nor n ecess ary to specify all thetypes of goods which should be regarded as pub lic or poli t i cal .Some polit ical goods also seem to be b et t er indicatorsthan o thers of the ext en t o f governmen tal p erfo rman ce andpolit ica l development .The four polit ical goods cho s en fordis cuss ion b elow - pub lic educat ion , pub lic health , j us t iceand pub l ic secur it y , and pub lic tran spo r t at i on and commun i cat ion - seem t o be the mo st e s s en t ial and indicat ive .Pub lic educat ionOf the three levels of educat ion , the primary is mo s tclearly political . Unlike secondary and ter t iary educat ion ,primary educat ion is necessarily , because of i t s nature , atThe degree o f pub lic monop olyleast pre dominan t ly pub lic .in the provis ion of primary education is of course variab le .In the Philipp in es , the governmen t shares the re spon s ib ilitywith private , lar gely re ligious , in itiat ive to a far greaterexten t than anywhere else in Southeast As i a . N everthele ss ,bas ic educat ion in the Philipp ines is s t ill predominantly inthe hand s of the pub lic author ity .In Negros Orien tal as a who le , there were , for the197 2 - 7 3 s chool y ear , 5 0 7 pub lic primary and elemen taryschools .Cons iderin g the provin ce ' s land area of 5 7 46 s quarekilometres , very few children of s choo l-go in g age were thuslikely t o be out of school s imp ly b ecaus e o f di st an ce .Bothin terms o f the average teacher-student rat io and the averagenumb e r of s tuden ts p er classroom , the p rovis ion o f primaryeducation in the provin ce also seemed to b e gen erally adequate .The 113 , 72 5 studen t s go in g t o these s chools were taught by3 7 9 5 teachers in 35 02 c lass rooms .Rather unexpectedly , the performan ce o f Dumaguet e wasno b e t ter than that of the provin ce as a whole . For its 11pub li c p rimary and elemen tary s chools , the city had 2 868

9teache rs teachin g a to tal of 7 9 88 studen t s in 2 2 4 class rooms.This mean s that on the average there were only ab out 2 8s tuden ts for every teacher in the cap i t al , as compared t o 30On the o ther hand , the city hadin the province general ly.to put 36 ins t ead of 32 s tuden t s in an average class room.Tanj ay not surprisingly out performed b o th the provinceand the capital city.Fo r it s 85 4 7 s tudent s , the municipalityhad 25 s choo ls , 334 teachers an d 2 7 6 clas srooms , making theaverage numb ers of s tuden t s per t eacher and per class roomonly about 2 6 and 31 respectively.In spit e of it s low levelof e conomic development , Bacon g , with 93 teachers for its2 33 6 students , had an even lowe r s tuden t - teacher rat io o f 2 5to one.S ince i t had only 9 s chools con tain ing a total ofon ly 5 4 clas srooms , however , it was forced t o crowd anaverage o f 4 3 studen t s in each clas sroom.The dis crep an cy b etween Bacon g ' s an d Tanj ay ' s relatives tuden t-teacher ratios on the on e hand and their relativeeconomic po s i t ions on the o ther reflect s the fact that , asmun icipal teacher s are dire ctly and ent ir ely paid by thecen tral governmen t , the number of t eachers in a municipalityis not dependen t on the economi c capab ility of that muni cipality. The case is only a b it dif feren t for a city.Although the cen t ral Min is t ry of Educat ion was st ill fullyin charge of a city ' s primary and elemen tary s chools , thecity government was required t o cont r ibute to the paymen t o fsome o f it s t e achers. Hen ce , Dumague te was f in an c iallyrespon s ib le for about a quarter of t he city teachers in theSchool buildin gs and clas s rooms in the19 7 2 - 7 3 s choo l y ear.municipalities as well as cit ie s were also mos t ly the respons ib ility o f the cen tral government.For this reas on , theirquality was also a poor indicator of the level of economicp rosper ity in thes e localit ies. While 7 7 p er cen t of theclas srooms in Bacon g were of p ermanent or s emi-permanen tThecon s t ruct ion , only 64 per cen t of tho se in Tanj ay were.greater crowding in Bacong ' s s chools may s imply reflect themuch greate r population density in the mun icipality.The domin an t role o f the cen t r al Min i s t ry o f Educat ionclearly prevented b latan t educat ional dispar it ies among thecit ies and mun icipal ities. Neverthele ss , the re were signifi can t , albeit sub t le , qualitative dif ferences.It was agen erPlly accepted fac t that s choo ls in the cit ies and thericher mtlll icipalit ies had the b es t t eachers.S ince un qualifiedt eachers we re generally clas s i f ied as provis ional , it is

10Inrevealin g t o no te the p ercentages of such t eache rs .Bacon g , almo st half of the teachers we re provis ional .Al though the exact f igure was not available for Tanj ay , theIn Dumaguet e ,percen t age app eared to be much lower there .the p rovis ional teachers accotm ted for less than 1 3 per cen tof the teaching staf f in the primary and element ary s choo ls .In areas where local fin an cial respon s ib ility was involved ,Tanj ay ' s s choo ls appeareddispar i t ies were also no tab l e .t o be much b e t t er main tained , for example , t han tho se inFacil i t ies such as librar ies and workshop s wereBacon g .comparab le in numb er in the two mun icipal i t ie s ; t o Bacon g ' sthree libraries and five indus t rial arts and home economicsTheseworkshops Tanj ay had five and twelve re spectively .facili t ies , however , we re not iceab ly b e t t er equipped andmanaged in the l at ter , riche r township .Pub lic healthThe mos t obvious aspect of public health is of coursethe availab ility of health-care facilit ies an d p ersonnel .In addit ion , the provis ion o f pub li c health mus t inc lude twoo ther aspect s . As ide from programs o f disease preven tionand con t rol , there mus t exis t facilities for pub l i c s an i t at ion ,no tably the means o f was te dispo s al and the sources of safedrinking water .In the ent i re provin ce o f Negro s Orien t al , there were( July 1 9 7 3 ) on ly three pub lic hospit als . The main provincialhospit al , located in Dumaguete , served as the central unitt o whi ch all s erious medical cas es were referred f rom all overWith a capacity o f 12 5 b eds , it was served b ythe provin ce .1 8 doc t or s and 45 nurses and other quali f ied medi cal p ersonnel .As a full gene ral hospital , it was equipped with departmen t so f surgery , ob s t e t ri cs and gynaeco lo gy , an d pediat rics , an dp rovided diet ary , laborato ry , x-ray , den tal , nur s ing anddis pen s ary services .The two o the r pub l i c hospit als , locatedat the oppos it e ends of the p rovince - at Bayawan andGuihulngan - were much smalle r branche s of the cen t ral un i t .In addit ion to these three ho

The political economy of political development. (Development Studies Centre monograph; no. 21) ISBN 0 909150 96 6 1. Philippine Islands - Economic conditions. I. Title. (Series: Australian National University, Canberra. Development Studies Centre. Monograph; no. 21 ISSN 0157-5767) 330.9599 Printed and manufactured in Australia by