Liberties Lost
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationLiberties LostThe Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. BecklesVerene A. Shepherd Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGEThe Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United KingdomCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 2004This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisionsof relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may takeplace without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.First published 2004Printed in Dubai by Oriental PressDesigned by The Nimble MouseTypeset by DTP ImpressionsTypeface Caecilia 9/12 pt.ISBN 0 521 43544 7paperbackDedicationThis book is dedicated to Norma Joy Lazarus (d. 1982)and toThe people of Haiti on the occasion of the bicentenary of Haitian independence(1804 – 2004) Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationContentsIntroduction viAcknowledgements viii151 Classical Africa in comparison with Europe 702 Early African development: African scientificand technological developments 713 The main West African states in the mid-15thCentury: Ghana, Mali and Songhai 744 The decline of White slavery 755 The rise of slavery in Africa 766 The impact of the transatlantic human tradeon Africa 79The indigenous Caribbean people 11 The culture of indigenous Caribbean people 22 The Ciboney 53 The Taino 54 The Kalinago 155 Continental cousins: Maya, Aztec and Inca 192The European-Caribbean Project 281 The first ‘American’ journeys before Columbus 292 Asia and the Crusades 293 The Portuguese in West Africa 324 Colonising the islands in the East Atlantic 335 The Columbus project 33367The Caribbean economy and enslavement 991 The sugar revolution 1002 The sugar industry grows 1003 White indentured servants 1014 The planters clamp down 1015 Servant resistance 1016 Enslaved Africans and production 1027 Control of Africans 111Other European settlement and rivalry 511 The challenge to Spanish monopoly by otherEuropean nations 522 The ways in which European nations challengedthe Spanish monopoly 603 The Spanish counter-attack 634 The resistance of the Kalinago in the EasternCaribbean 63The transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans 821 The commercial and financial organisationof the trade in humans 832 Prices and profits in the trade 843 The debate over the size of the trade and themain participants 884 The Middle Passage and the mortality rate ofAfricans 895 Resistance by Africans to the transatlantichuman trade 946 The impact of the trade on Africa, Europeand the Americas 96Spanish settlement and indigenous resistance 361 Lost in the Caribbean 372 Spanish colonial policy and settlement patterns 393 The oppression and enslavement of the Taino 404 Taino resistance 435 Spanish political and economic systems in theCaribbean 444Europe and the spread of chattel slaveryin Africa 698Making and marketing sugar 1211 Making sugar 1222 Marketing sugar 133 Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore information9African culture and community life 1371 The transfer of culture 1382 Ethnicity 1383 Rites and rituals 1394 Dances, games and other celebrations 1415 Rebuilding family 14910 Surviving enslavement: wealth andhealth factors 1541 The ways in which the enslaved pursued aneconomic life of their own 1552 The ways in which the enslaved survivedslavery: death and disease 16313 Caribbean emancipations 2051 The background to emancipation 2062 The abolition of the trade in humans 2063 The system of ameliorating slavery 2094 Emancipation in Haiti and its impact on theslave systems of the wider Caribbean 2105 Emancipation in English colonies 2116 Emancipation in French colonies 2147 Emancipation in Danish and Dutch colonies 2168 Emancipation in the Spanish colonies 2199 Comparisons: emancipation in the USA 221Additional Sources for Teachers 224Glossary 23011 Revolt and marronage 1661 African anti-slavery politics 1672 One type and method of resistance:marronage 170Index 23412 Armed revolt 1801 The Berbice Revolution, 1763 1812 The Haitian Revolution, 1791 1833 The 1816 emancipation war in Barbados 1904 Emancipation war in Jamaica, 1831/32 1955 Women and resistance 201 Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationMap of the Caribbeanv Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationIntroductionIf you know your history, then you would know where you’re coming from; then you wouldn’t have to ask me: whothe hell do you think I am.Bob MarleyThe audience for this bookThis book, like its companion volume, Freedoms Won, aimsto help teachers and students in their journeys throughthe Caribbean history syllabus offered by the CaribbeanExaminations Council (CXC). The two books accommodatethe entire CXC history programme, including the newsyllabus in Caribbean/Atlantic history known as CAPE(Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations).Both volumes will be of value to students and teachersengaged in the Cambridge ‘A’ level syllabus on the postslavery history of the Caribbean. They should also be ofuse to college/university students participating infoundation courses in Caribbean history, as well as to thegeneral reader seeking information on the history of theregion.The focus of this bookThe indigenous Caribbean peopleWe begin with a focus on the indigenous Caribbeansocieties, and move on to the slave systems that were builtby European colonisers. The first Caribbean people createdsocieties that were complex in culture. Some of thesesocieties shared common beliefs and practices. Thedevelopment of these societies was undermined when theEuropeans arrived in the Caribbean, beginning withChristopher Columbus’s mission of 1492. After this, sixEuropean nations fought the indigenous people and woncontrol of territory in the region.Europe’s Caribbean projectSpain, France, England, Holland and Denmark had thegreatest impact upon Caribbean societies. Sweden was aminor coloniser and did much less to reshape the region.These imperial powers established and developed largeand small-scale settlements and trade networks. Theysucceeded despite protest and violent opposition from theindigenous people who tried to protect their lands, libertyvi Cambridge University Pressand lives by all the means available to them. In general,the resistance of indigenous people was not as effective asintended; the result was the overthrow and reorganisationof the traditional Caribbean world.European settlement and rivalryAn important outcome of the European settlement wasthat it militarily defeated, enslaved, and mass murderedthe indigenous people. A few communities survived thisgenocide. They are now scattered mostly within theinterior areas of Guiana and Suriname, in parts of CentralAmerica, and in the Eastern Lesser Antilles. They are stillan oppressed and marginalised people, who still seekrespect for their cultural identity and independence.The rapid destruction of indigenous communities inthe Greater Antilles and their continued armed struggle inthe Lesser Antilles, meant that the European settlers didnot have the quantity of servile labour force they desired.So, the European settlers used two main systems of labourbondage – they imported indentured servants from the‘old world’ of Europe and they used Africans as chattelenslaved.The transatlantic trade in enslaved AfricansBy the end of the 17th century, White indentured workerswere no longer so important. Now the Europeans mainlyused enslaved Africans as the labour system with whichthey exploited the Caribbean. Over 12 million Africanswere imported into colonial ‘America ‘to achieve this end.The mass enslavement of Africans in the East Atlanticislands happened before Columbus’ voyage to theCaribbean in the West Atlantic. The mass enslavementwas a westward movement. It began in the mid-15thcentury with the establishment of large-scale chattelslavery in Madeira, an island in the East Atlantic. Here,Europeans built sugar plantations that became a modelfor the rest of the Caribbean. So the Madeira model was alaunch pad for the wealth generating, life destroyingmachine - the Caribbean plantation.Introductionwww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationSugar and slaveryRevolt and resistanceBy the end of the l8th century, sugar plantations andAfrican enslavement dominated the social and economiclife of the Caribbean. The main driving force was thesearch for profits. In most places, the mining, coffee,cotton, cattle and tobacco industries were secondary tothe main export staple, sugar.The enslaved African population carried out manydifferent tasks and experienced slavery in different ways.Many were artisans, fisherfolk, sailors, overseers,domestics, vendors, sugar technologists (boilers anddistillers), soldiers, lumberjacks, builders, andentertainers. The vast majority, however, worked on sugar,cotton and coffee plantations, cattle and timber farms,and mines.The type of work they did influenced the life of theenslaved populations in important ways, for example,their general health, life expectancy and social life. Theenslaved were overworked, malnourished and physicallyand mentally brutalised. Poor health, physical exhaustionand psychological trauma contributed to the fact thatmore Black people died than were born. So for most of theperiod of slavery, the enslaved population could notincrease naturally.Enslaved workers were constantly badly affected by arange of nutritionally related diseases. The major killerswere fevers and dysentery. Poor nutrition meant that theycould not easily defend themselves from these diseases.As a result the death rate of the Black communities wasfar higher than the death rate of the White communities.But life in the Caribbean was very insecure and unstable.Europeans fought each other for the largest share of loot,trade, power and status. The region was a theatre of war,both on land and at sea. It was known for its violence andturmoil. Black people fought for their freedom and soadded to the violence that shaped social life everywhere.They were determined to uproot slavery and this meantthat there was constant conflict between Black and Whitepeople.Between 1791 and 1793 the enslaved people in theFrench colony of St Domingue won their freedom after abloody civil war. Once they had won their social freedomthey demanded political freedom from France. In 1804they declared national independence and renamed thecolony Haiti – the indigenous name for the island onwhich the nation emerged. Boukman Dutty, from Jamaica,and then Toussaint L’Ouverture and others led thisfreedom revolution. But it was Jean Jacques Dessalineswho emerged as the country’s first president. Haitibecame the second independent republic in the ‘Newworld’, following the United States of America. So Haitiwas the first Caribbean nation.The impact of Haiti on slavery everywhere wasprofound. It affected both the pro-slavery interests andthe anti-slavery campaign. Slavery was deeply weakened.Black people all over the region tried to follow theexample of armed self-liberation. The region became moreunstable than ever as the number of rebellions increased.After Haiti the rebellions of enslaved workers weremore effectively planned and organised than those before.The rebellions were expressions of the growing desire forfreedom among women and men, skilled and unskilled,old and young. The women especially forged links acrossgenerations, between those who worked in the fields andin the planters’ households. They used culture andreligion to strengthen unity and to raise consciousness.In the end, the slave system was brought down by acombination of anti-slavery rebellion in the Caribbean, theeconomic decline of the region’s sugar industry, and theincreasing effectiveness of European parliamentary andpublic anti-slavery politics.African culture and community lifeSlavery did not stop Africans from surviving. They tried tosurvive by creating an independent social and economiclife of their own. They demanded the ‘free’ use of leisuretime, which they filled with activities that ranged fromentertainment to selling goods, to family engagements.These activities came to symbolise the spirit of freedomthat shaped their day-to-day resistance to slavery.The work of enslaved Africans produced money andprofits for their enslavers. The Caribbean economyincluded world trade and investment networks, and itgenerated a lot of money for colonisers. Much of thiswealth was exported capital and it contributed greatly tothe funding of industrial growth in Western Europe.However the transatlantic trade in enslaved Africansand the wealth it produced in the Caribbean for colonisersled to the long-term economic decline of Western Africa.For over 300 years the Caribbean world was the centre ofEurope’s global empires, the centre of a system of trade,finance and production.Introduction Cambridge University PressCaribbean emancipationIt took nearly 100 years to complete the process of generalemancipation. It began with the self-liberation of Blackpeople in Haiti in 1793 and ended with the abolition ofslavery in the Spanish colonies in the 1880s. The processof emancipation was a major political and socialundertaking by Africans, Europeans, and people of mixedracial origins. They all had a stake in uprooting the horridslave system from modern life.viiwww.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press0521435447 - Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and Slave SystemsHilary McD. Beckles and Verene A. ShepherdFrontmatterMore informationSo, this book tries to summarise, and in some placesnarrate and illuminate, the literature on these aspects ofCaribbean history. It relies upon the work of manyhistorians whose published research informs ourunderstanding of the subject. We have not always giventhe names of all these colleagues but we would like tothink that what is presented here is in part a celebrationof their efforts.We have kept references and quotations to a minimumto facilitate easy reading. However, we take fullresponsibility for any shortcomings that have resulted.Finally, we hope that this text will serve to stimulate somestudents to follow the historian’s craft or at least becomehistorians in spirit.AcknowledgementsSeveral debts were accumulated during the researchingand writing of this book. We would like to acknowledgeour research assistants, all of them graduates of theUniversity of the West Indies: Jaset Anderson, Dalea Bean,Symone Betton, Eldon Birthwright, Henderson Carter,Cavell Francis, Shanette Geohagen, Karen Graham, TannyaGuerra, Georgia Hamilton, Natalie McCarthy, Ann Morris,Nicole Plummer, Coral Purvil, Ahmed Reid, Mitzie Reid,Michelle Salmon, Pedro Welch and Vernon White.We would also like to thank our students at UWI who readCaribbean history courses. They debated in seminar manyissues raised in the text and provided valuable andstimulating feedback. Teachers and students whoattended the Trinidad and Tobago History TeachersAssociation Workshop at the University of the West Indies,St. Augustine Campus, in November 1998, also debated thecontent of several draft chapters. Their criticism helped toshape the final text, and for this assistance we areappreciative.Reviewers of the manuscript made many importantobservations and offered valuable suggestions for theoverall improvement of the work. Their comments andcriticisms were essential in helping us to craft the finaltext.Carol Thompson, Grace Franklin and Grace Jutan werevery kind and patiently assisted with the preparation ofthe various drafts of the manuscript. We thank them mostsincerely.viii Cambridge University PressFinally, we thank our families for their support in thecompletion of this projectH.McD.B./V.A.S.The publisher and authors are also grateful to thefollowing for permission to reproduce images:Courtesy of the National Library of Jamaica: 5 (top left andright), 6 (top and bottom), 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 (left andtop right), 15, 19, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48, 54, 59, 61,62, 76, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 87, 91, 92 (top), 103, 104, 105, 106,114, 115, 116, 122, 123, 126, 128, 129 (top and bottom), 130,139 (left), 140, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147, 151, 156 (left and topright), 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 171 (top), 174, 175, 177, 178,179, 186, 187, 194, 197 (top and bottom), 198, 199, 201, 208,213; Archivo Oronoz: 90; www.gettyimages/Gallo Images:31, 187, 222, 223; DDB Stock Photography: 81, 93; 2003Mark van Aardt/Fotozone: 10; Photo Access: 10, 18; INPRA:22 (bottom right), 23, 45, 131, 170, 206, 207 (top and bottomright), 214 (bottom left and right); DASPHOTO: 20, 46, 132,165, 216; Werner Forman Archive: 21 (top left, NationalMuseum of Anthropology and right, NJ Saunders), 22 (NJSaunders), 24 (top left, Museum für Volkerkunde, Berlin),25 (top left, NJ Saunders and bottom right, Museum fürVolkerkunde, Berlin), 29, 30, 70, 71 (National Museum,Lagos), 72 (British Museum), 73, 86, 92 (bottom); DennisRanston: 203; courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library atBrown University: 26, 27, 95, 111, 112, 119, 139 (right), 171(bottom), 173, 188; Verene Shepherd: 109; Carl DeC.Branch: 191Maps on the following pages by Maré Liebenberg: vi, 2, 3, 4,7, 16, 32, 33, 34, 38, 44, 52, 58, 72, 85, 176, 181, 191, 196Lyrics of songs:For the songlines that preface chapters 3 to 13, wegratefully acknowledge permission from the Bob MarleyFoundation.Cover image: Sale of slave woman and her children.Benoit. Courtesy of the John Carter BrownLibrary at Brown University.Every attempt has been made to locate copyright holdersfor all material in this book. The publishers would be gladto hear from anyone whose copyright has beenunwittingly infringed.Introductionwww.cambridge.org
Examinations Council (CXC).The two books accommodate the entire CXC history programme,including the new syllabus in Caribbean/Atlantic history known as CAPE (Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations). Both volumes will be of value to students and teachers engaged in the Cambridge 'A' level syllabus on the post-
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