Critical Race Theory And Christianity
Critical Race Theory andChristianityDr. Neil ShenviApril 30, 2021
Smithsonian NMAAHC“Whiteness and white racialized identity refer to the way that white people, theircustoms, culture, and beliefs operate as the standard by which all other groups of arecompared.”
Black Lives Matter“We are self-reflexive and do the work required to dismantle cisgenderprivilege and uplift Black trans folk, especially Black trans women whocontinue to be disproportionately impacted by trans-antagonistic violence We foster a queer‐affirming network. When we gather, we do so with theintention of freeing ourselves from the tight grip of heteronormativethinking, or rather, the belief that all in the world are heterosexual (unlesss/he or they disclose otherwise).”
NYTimes word usage
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Critical theory and Karl Marx“Alone among these thinkers [i.e.,Horkheimer, Bourdieu, Foucault,etc.], Karl Marx invites consensus as a‘true’ critical theorist. Indeed, formany, he alone inaugurates the criticaltradition” (Levinson et al, BeyondCritique, p. 25-26)1850190019502000
Critical theory and the FrankfurtSchool“Critical theory was conceived withinthe crucible of Marxism” “TheFrankfurt School not only contestedestablishmentarianism view of history,but projected a radical alternative.European radicals applied its ideas toreconfiguring the family, sexuality, andeducation.” – Bronner, Critical Theory:A Very Short Introduction, p. 2, 71850190019502000
Other critical social theoristsCultural StudiesBourdieuHallFeminismde Beauvoir Friedan1850PostcolonialismFanonSaidBlack feminismhooksLourde1900Critical pedagogyFreireGirouxQueer itical Race TheoryBellCrenshaw2000
The Taxonomy of Critical TheorySim and Van Loon, Introducing Critical Theory, p. 24-25
The Taxonomy of Critical Theory“critical theory” critical social theories“Critical Theory” Frankfurt SchoolCritical theory resists essentialism (it is hard to define!)
Unifying themes of critical theory [critical theory] is not neutral in referenceto values and has a definite conceptionof “progress” and the social good, oftena utopian vision or concept of“liberation” the assumed need to dismantle andcritique taken-for-granted ideologies, tochallenge the “false consciousness” or“misrecognition” that enables socialdomination. An understanding of domination asstructural yet dialectically connected toagency in people’s “everyday lives.” LevinsonBradley Levinson, Beyond Critique, p.11
Unifying themes of critical theory“the cluster of philosophical approaches to [issues ofidentity is] known by the umbrella term criticaltheory. Critical theory is today a diverse phenomenonthat draws deeply and variously on strands of Marxistthought, psychoanalysis, feminist theory,postcolonialism, poststructuralism, queer theory, anddeconstruction at the core of the various approachesof critical theorists lies a relatively simple set ofconvictions: the world is to be divided up betweenthose who have power and those who do not; thedominant Western narrative of truth is really anideological construct designed to preserve the powerstructure of the status quo; and the goal of criticaltheory is therefore to destabilize this power structureby destabilizing the dominant narratives that areused to justify –to ‘naturalize’– it” - TruemanTrueman, The Rise and Triumph of the Modern Self, p. 225-226
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
The Origins of Critical Race TheoryDerrick BellRichardDelgado1980Gloria LadsonBillingsKimberle CrenshawMari Matsuda19841987NeilGotanda198919911996William Tate
The Core Tenets of CRT Racism is normal, permanent, and pervasive Racism is concealed beneath principles likecolorblindness, meritocracy, and objectivity Lived experience is necessary to fully understandracism Racism is part of interlocking systems of oppression
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Racism is normal, permanent, andpervasive“Racism is a normal part ofAmerican life, often lackingthe ability to be distinctivelyrecognized A CRT lens unveilsthe various forms in whichracism continually manifestsitself, despite espousedinstitutional values regardingequity and social justice.” –Harper, Patton, and WoodenHarper, Patton, and Wooden, “Access and Equity for African American Students in HigherEducation: A Critical Race Historical Analysis of Policy Efforts,” The Journal of HigherEducation, 80(4), 2009, p. 389-414.
Racism is normal, permanent, andpervasive“Racism is normal, notaberrant, in American society.Because it is an ingrainedfeature of our landscape,racism looks ordinary andnatural to persons in ourculture.” – Delgado andStefancicDelgado and Stefancic, Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, 3rd edition, p. 2
Racism is normal, permanent,and pervasive“Race: the characteristicsascribed to a particular racecan and will change to fit adominant group’s interest. Inthis way, racist behavior isnot an aberration ineveryday life; it is oftennormal practice in deeplyracialized social systems.” –Kafi KumasiKafi D. Kumasi, “Critical Race Theory and Education: Mapping a Legacy of Activism andScholarship” in Levinson’s Beyond Critique (p. 209-213).
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Racism is concealed beneath principleslike colorblindness, meritocracy, andobjectivity“liberalism, neutrality,objectivity, colorblindness,and meritocracy camouflage[how] racial advantage propelsthe self-interests, power, andprivileges of the dominantgroup.” – Harper, Patton, andWoodenHarper, Patton, and Wooden, “Access and Equity for African American Students in HigherEducation: A Critical Race Historical Analysis of Policy Efforts,” The Journal of HigherEducation, 80(4), 2009, p. 389-414.
Racism is concealed beneath principleslike colorblindness, meritocracy, andobjectivity“the overall ethos of majorityculture promotes andpromulgates a notion of ‘colorblindness’ and ‘meritocracy.’These two notions aremutually intertwined andserve to marginalize certainenclaves of people—predominately people ofcolor.” – HartlepNicholas Hartlep, “Critical Race Theory: An Examination of its Past, Present, and FutureImplications,” ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 506 735, 2009
Racism is concealed beneath principleslike colorblindness, meritocracy, andobjectivity“critical race scholars arediscontented with liberalism Colorblindness can be admirable But it can be perverse, forexample, when it stands in theway of taking account of differentin order to help people inneed Crits are suspicious ofanother liberal mainstay, namely,rights. – Delgado and StefancicDelgado and Stefancic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction, p. 27
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Lived experience is necessary tofully understand racism“CRT gives voice to the uniqueperspectives and livedexperiences of people ofcolor CRT usescounternarratives as a way tohighlight discrimination, offerracially differentinterpretations of policy, andchallenge the universality ofassumptions made aboutpeople of color.” – Harper,Patton, and WoodenHarper, Patton, and Wooden, “Access and Equity for African American Students in HigherEducation: A Critical Race Historical Analysis of Policy Efforts,” The Journal of HigherEducation, 80(4), 2009, p. 389-414.
Lived experience is necessary tofully understand racism“blacks experience thepower of second sight fromthe perspective of antiblackprejudice A CRT frameworkrecognizes the centrality ofexperiential knowledge ofpeople of color and viewsthis knowledge as legitimate,appropriate, and critical tounderstanding, analyzing,and teaching about racialsubordination.” – Kafi KumasiKafi D. Kumasi, “Critical Race Theory and Education: Mapping a Legacy of Activism andScholarship” in Levinson’s Beyond Critique (p. 209-213).
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Racism is part of interlockingsystems of oppression“CRT critiques [claims that]:one can fight racism withoutpaying attention to sexism,homophobia, economicexploitation, and other formsof oppression or injustice.”–Harper, Patton, and WoodenHarper, Patton, and Wooden, “Access and Equity for African American Students in HigherEducation: A Critical Race Historical Analysis of Policy Efforts,” The Journal of HigherEducation, 80(4), 2009, p. 389-414.
Racism is part of interlockingsystems of oppression“The Commitment to SocialJustice: CRT is committed tosocial justice and offers aliberatory or transformativeresponse to racial, gender, andclass oppression and workstoward the elimination ofracism, sexism, and poverty aswell as the empowerment ofPeople of Color and othersubordinated groups” – YossoTara Yosso, “Whose Culture Has Capital?” Race ethnicity and education, Vol. 8, 2005
Racism is part of interlockingsystems of oppression“CRT scholars are critical ofany sociological analyses thatfocus solely on race withoutrecognizing that racialoppression exists in multiplelayers based on gender,class, immigration status,surname, phenotype,accent, and sexuality.” – KafiKumasiKafi D. Kumasi, “Critical Race Theory and Education: Mapping a Legacy of Activism andScholarship” in Levinson’s Beyond Critique (p. 209-213).
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Positives of CRT Race is a social construct Racism has shaped ourcountry’s history Racism can infect systems
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Problems with Critical Race Theory Racism as primarily sin, notsystem Sin, not racism, is pervasive Identity primarily in Christ, notethnicity Truth primarily in Scripture, notexperience Sin as lawlessness, notoppression
Racism as sin, not system“People of color are not racistbecause they do not systematicallybenefit from racism Using the samelogic, I reserve the word sexist formen” - TatumBeverly Daniel Tatum, “Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?” p. 10
Racism as sin, not system“if you are white in a whitesupremacist society, you are racist.If you are male in a patriarchy, youare sexist. If you are able-bodied,you are ableist. If you are anythingabove poverty in a capitalistsociety, you are classist. You cansometimes be all of these things atone.” - OluoIjeoma Oluo, So You Want to Talk About Race? p. 216-217
Problems with Critical Race Theory Racism as primarily sin, notsystem Sin, not racism, is pervasive Identity primarily in Christ, notethnicity Truth primarily in Scripture, notexperience Sin as lawlessness, notoppression
Sin, not racism, is pervasive“ the question is not ‘Did racism take place?’ butrather, ‘In which ways did racism manifest in thisspecific context?’”1“Cross-racial friendships do not block out the dynamicsof racism in the society at large, and these dynamicscontinue unabated Racism cannot be absent fromyour friendship. No person of color whom I’ve met hassaid that racism isn’t at play in his or her friendshipswith white people. Some whites are more thoughtful,aware, and receptive to feedback than others, but nocross-racial relationship is free from the dynamics ofracism in this society.”21 Schroeder& DiAngelo. (2010). Addressing Whiteness in Nursing Education: The Sociopolitical ClimateProject at the University of Washington School of Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science, 33 (3) 244-255.2 RobinDiAngelo, White Fragility, (2018), p. 80-81
Sin, not racism, is pervasive“Whiteness positions itself as the norm.It refuses to recognize itself for what itis. Its so-called ‘objectivity’ and ‘reason’is its most potent and insidious tool formaintaining power”“We need to see racism as structural inorder to see its insidiousness. We needto see how it seeps, like a noxious gas,into everything” – Eddo-LodgeReni Eddo-Lodge, Why I Am No Longer Talking to White People About Race, p. 169, 222
Problems with Critical Race Theory Racism as primarily sin, notsystem Sin, not racism, is pervasive Identity primarily in Christ, notethnicity Truth primarily in Scripture, notexperience Sin as lawlessness, notoppression
Identity in Christ, not ethnicity“The binary terms oppressor andoppressed, for example, may raiseresistance from participants whocannot reconcile themselves asoppressors or who resist the termoppressed. On the other hand, westruggle to find other language thatdoesn’t trivialize the power and harmof the oppressive system” - AdamsMaurianne Adams, Lee Anne Bell, Pat Griffin, Teachings for Diversity and SocialJustice, p. xxii, (2007)
Identity in Christ, not ethnicity“a positive white identity is an impossiblegoal. White identity is inherently racist;white people do not exist outside the systemof white supremacy. This does not mean thatwe should stop identifying as white and startclaiming only to be Italian or Irish. To do so isto deny the reality of racism in the here andnow, and this denial would simply be colorblind racism. Rather, I strive to be ‘less white.’To be less white is to be less raciallyoppressive. I can build a wide range ofauthentic and sustained relationships acrossrace and accept that I have racist patterns.” –DiAngeloRobin DiAngelo, White Fragility, (2018), p. 149-150
Problems with Critical Race Theory Racism as primarily sin, notsystem Sin, not racism, is pervasive Identity primarily in Christ, notethnicity Truth primarily in Scripture, notexperience Sin as lawlessness, notoppression
Truth in Scripture, not experience“It is about race if a person of colorthinks it is about race whether ornot someone is fallible is beside thepoint. We are, each and every one ofus, a collection of our livedexperiences And our experiencesare valid.” - OluoIjeoma Oluo, So you want to talk about race, p. 14-15
Truth in Scripture, not experience“Identity politics and standpointepistemology constitute two importantdimensions of epistemic resistance forsubordinated groups. Identity politicsvalorizes the experiences of women,people of color, poor people, LGBTQpeople, and similarly subordinated peopleas a source of epistemic agency. Byclaiming the authority of experience,standpoint epistemology defends theintegrity of individuals and groups ininterpreting their own experiences.” CollinsPatricia Hill Collins, Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory, p. 136
Problems with Critical Race Theory Racism as primarily sin, notsystem Sin, not racism, is pervasive Identity primarily in Christ, notethnicity Truth primarily in Scripture, notexperience Sin as lawlessness, notoppression
Sin as lawlessness, not oppressionAdams et al, Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice, Appendix C
Sin as lawlessness, not oppression“Antiracist policies cannot eliminateclass racism without anticapitalismpolicies. Anticapitalism cannot eliminateclass racism without antiracism.”“To truly be antiracist is to be feminist.To truly be feminist is to be antiracist”“We cannot be antiracist if we arehomophobic or transphobic To bequeer antiracist is to understand theprivileges of my cisgender, of mymasculinity, of my heterosexuality, oftheir intersections” - KendiIbram X. Kendi, How to Be An Antiracist, p. 159 189, 197
Mixing CRT and Christianity
Can ‘White’ People Be Saved?“the essays in this volume deftlydeploy cutting-edge theory inracial and ethnic studies” anddraw on “critical theorists[who] advocate for analyses ofracism that explore how othercommunities of color [outside theBlack/White binary] experience theeffects of racialization” (p. 10-11).Sechrest, Can ‘White’ People Be Saved, p. 10-11
Can ‘White’ People Be Saved?“Decolonizing Salvation” - Andrea Smith“what we presume to be true of the Bible isprimarily the result of the history of Europeaninterpretation as translated into Europeanlanguages we would have a completely differentunderstanding of the Bible if we read it throughIndigenous languages translated directly fromGreek and Hebrew.” (p. 54)“According to the European positivist grammar oftruth, if proposition p is true, then not-p must befalse. Indigenous epistemologies are not beholdento such logic systems. Beliefs, even systems ofbelief that seem contradictory to European andEuro-American culture–for example, Christianityand Indigenous religions–can coexist in Indigenousculture” (p. 62)
Can ‘White’ People Be Saved?“The End of ‘Mission’: Christian Witness and theDecentering of White Identity” – Andrew Draper“whiteness is best understood as a religioussystem of pagan idol worship that thrives onmutually reinforcing circularity between the image(the ideal or the form) and the social constructionof those who worship it As idolatry, whitenessmust be dealt with like any such cultic system: itshigh places must be torn down and its altars laidlow” (p. 177-178)“If whiteness is a way of life into which itsnovitiates are discipled, then a Christiandiscipleship that entails a deconversion fromwhiteness is necessary if any true experience ofreconciliation with God, others, the creation, andourselves is to take place. (p. 181)
Outline What is critical theory? What is Critical Race Theory? Racism is normalRacism is concealedLived experience is necessaryRacism is part of interlocking systems of oppressionPositives of CRT Problems with Critical Race Theory Book Recommendations Acknowledgements
Read broadly
Confronting Injustice WithoutCompromising Truth by ThaddeusWilliams
Beyond Racial Gridlock, by Dr.George Yancey
Cynical Theories by HelenPluckrose and James Lindsay
Just Mercy, Bryan Stevenson
Acknowledgements andadditional resourcesDr. Christina Shenvi Dr. Pat Sawyer“The Incompatibility of Critical Theory and Christianity,” The Gospel Coalition“Book review: Cynical Theories,” Themelios“Gender, Intersectionality, and Critical Theory,” Eikon“Engaging Critical Theory and the Social Justice Movement” Ratio Christishenviapologetics.com/Twitter @NeilShenvi, @RealPatSawyer
Outline What is critical theory? A Deep Dive into Critical Race Theory A Deep Dive into Robin DiAngelo’s work Advice for Dialogue
Robin DiAngelo
Robin DiAngelo Critical Social Justice All whites are racist The white fragility Kafkatrap Roadmap to alienation
Critical Social JusticeRobin DiAngelo, What Does It Mean to Be White, (2016), p. 64
All whites are racist“a positive white identity is an impossible goal.White identity is inherently racist; white people donot exist outside the system of white supremacy.This does not mean that we should stop identifyingas white and start claiming only to be Italian or Irish.To do so is to deny the reality of racism in the hereand now, and this denial would simply be color-blindracism. Rather, I strive to be ‘less white.’ To be lesswhite is to be less racially oppressive. I can build awide range of authentic and sustained relationshipsacross race and accept that I have racist patterns.”Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility, (2018), p. 149-150
The white fragility KafkatrapWhite fragility is “a state in which even a minimum amount of racial stress becomes intolerable, triggering a range of defensive moves” (p. 103).Manifestations of white fragility include:Feelings:Singled ehaviors:Claims:CryingI already know all this.Physically leavingYou are judging meEmotionallywithdrawingYou are generalizingArguingSome people find offensewhere there is none.DenyingSeeking absolutionRobin DiAngelo, White Fragility, (2018), p. 103I disagree
Roadmap to Alienation“White neurosis and the need for Peoples of Color toplacate White neurosis due to real fears of Whitesupremacy is the interplay of racial cray-cray, aprocess that plays out in the racial dynamics of urbanclassrooms. Under the power of Whiteness, theracial cray-cray becomes a socially-sanctionedprocess of engaging in the lies of White neurosisthat everyone is forced to perform.”Matias and DiAngelo, “Beyond the Face of Race: Emo-Cognitive Explorations of White Neurosis andRacial Cray-Cray,” Journal of Educational Foundations, 2(1), 2013.
Roadmap to Alientation“Thandeka (1999) argues that raising White children to beWhite is a form of child abuse because ‘the child learns tosilence and then deny its own resonant feelings towardsracially proscribed others, not because it wishes to becomeWhite, but because it wishes to remain within the communitythis is quite literally its life’ (p. 24) If Whites are reared inthis manner, then emotional and psychological damage on theWhite psyche results we hope to offer a new approach toracial healing by affirming Thandeka’s (1999) postulation ofWhiteness as a form of child abuse and tracing what happenswhen that abuse goes unchecked”Matias and DiAngelo, “Beyond the Face of Race: Emo-Cognitive Explorations of White Neurosis andRacial Cray-Cray,” Journal of Educational Foundations, 2(1), 2013.
Roadmap to Alientation“ the question is not ‘Did racism take place?’ but rather, ‘Inwhich ways did racism manifest in this specific context?’”1Cross-racial friendships do not block out the dynamics ofracism in the society at large, and these dynamics continueunabated Racism cannot be absent from your friendship.No person of color whom I’ve met has said that racism isn’t atplay in his or her friendships with white people. Some whitesare more thoughtful, aware, and receptive to feedback thanothers, but no cross-racial relationship is free from thedynamics of racism in this society.”21 Schroeder& DiAngelo. (2010). Addressing Whiteness in Nursing Education: The Sociopolitical ClimateProject at the University of Washington School of Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science, 33 (3) 244-255.2 RobinDiAngelo, White Fragility, (2018), p. 80-81
Outline What is critical theory? A Deep Dive into Critical Race Theory A Deep Dive into Robin DiAngelo’s work Advice for Dialogue Acknowledge and fight racismRead broadlyKeep the gospel firstDialogueBe discerning
Acknowledge and fight racism
Keep the gospel first Is social justice a Christianimperative? Does God command it?Is it our moral obligation? Is itsomething we ought to do? Is the gospel an imperative or anindicative? Is it a statement of whatwe ought to do, or what God hasdone in Christ?
Dialogue
Beyond Racial Gridlock, by Dr.George Yancey
Be discerningCriticaltheoryRacism/injusticeBiblical orthodoxy
Why I Am No longer Talking toWhite People About Race“feminism was my first love. It waswhat gave me a framework to beginunderstanding the world. My feministthinking gave rise to my antiracistthinking, serving as a tool thathelped me forge a sense of selfworth” (p. 151).- Reni Eddo-Lodge, Why I Am No Longer Talking to White People About Race
Why I Am No longer Talking toWhite People About Race“Feminism, at its best, is a movementthat works to liberate all people whohave been economically, socially andculturally marginalized by anideological system that has beendesigned for them to fail. Thatmeans disabled people, black people,trans people, women and nonbinarypeople, LGB people, and workingclass people” (p. 181).- Reni Eddo-Lodge, Why I Am No Longer Talking to White People About Race
Me and White Supremacy“White feminism is an extension ofwhite supremacy. It is only concernedwith white women gaining parity withwhite men The antidote to thepoison of white feminism and byextension white supremacy isintersectionality” (p. 178-179)
Lived experience is necessary tofully understand racism“A theme of ‘naming one’s ownreality’ or ‘voice’ is entrenched inthe work of critical racetheorists some legal scholars mightcontent that the tort of fraud[belongs] to the universal system ofright and wrong In contrast,critical race theorists argue thatpolitical and moral analysis issituational— truths only exist forthis person in this predicament atthis time in history.’”Ladson-Billings and Tate, “Towards a Critical Race Theory of Education,” inCRT in Education, 2nd edition, p. 20
Unifying themes of critical theory the cluster of philosophical approaches to [issues of identity is] known by the umbrella term critical theory. Critical theory is today a diverse phenomenon that draws deeply and variously on strands of Marxist thought, psychoanalysis, feminist theory, postcolonialism, poststructuralism, queer theory, and
critical race theory itself, it is also a call to action. We begin with definitions of race and racism and offer a brief overview of critical race theory. After reviewing relevant research, we offer personal stories that highlight problems and challenges with respect to race and HCI. We then adapt some of critical race theory's main tenets .
122 DANIEL G. SOL lRZANO to examine how race and gender microaggressions affect the educational experiences of Chicana and Chicano scholars. Critical race theory Mari Matsuda ( 1991) has defined critical race theory as: . the work of progressiv
Robert Shapiro B ENEVOLENT M AGIC & L IVING P RAYER R OBERT S HAPIRO LIGHT TECHNOLOGY . Explorer Race series The Explorer Race ETs and the Explorer Race Explorer Race: Origins and the Next 50 Years Explorer Race: Creators and Friends Explorer Race: Particle Personalities The Explorer Race and Beyond Explorer Race: The Council of Creators
Critical Race Theory is not the real issue, but it's still an important discussion to have about racial awakening and the role of racism in politics the past, the present and the future. CRT is Realism Two authors, Claire Suddath and Shera Avi-Yonah, concisely explain that Critical Race Theory (CRT) "proposes that
Critical Race Theory in Education 20 Years Later Adrienne D. Dixson & Celia Rousseau Anderson To cite this article: Adrienne D. Dixson & Celia Rousseau Anderson (2018) Where are We? Critical Race Theory in Education 20 Years Later, Peabody Journal of Education, 93:1, 121-131,
Jacques Ellul, French sociologist and lay theologian (1912-1994), wrote widely on the contrast between what we might call authentic Christianity and distortions of Christianity.2 As displayed in the table below, as he explored different facets of Christianity and its distortions in a
Introduction to Christianity 2. How did Christianity become the official religion of the Roman Empire? Emperor Constantine began the practice of allowing Romans to choose their own religion. 1. Who founded Christianity? When and where did he live? Jesus of Nazareth; born in Judea. Lived from about 4 B.C. to A.D. 30.
ISO 14001:2015 standard certification. An EMS audit is a systematic and documented verification process of objectively obtaining and evaluating evidence to determine whether an organization’s EMS conforms to the criteria of the ISO 14001:2015 standard, and is communicating results to management. There is a plethora of information and checklists
