GII Singapore White Paper - American Chemical Society
WATERGLOBAL ISSUES, LOCAL SOLUTIONS“ What we want to provide is solutions. We don’t want toprovide chemicals, membranes or equipment. As a chemist, I don’t look for achemistry solution. Solutions do not come from one stream of science orengineering. They come from a group of people working together, usingtheir skills. The understanding of how to approach a scientific challenge orproblem is almost always now a multi-disciplinary approach.”– Adil DhallaDirector, Singapore Water Technology Centre GE Water and ProcessTechnologiesThis document was produced from discussions that took place at the ACS Global Innovations Imperatives (Gii)Water Innovation Treatment & Solutions (WITS) Forum from December 3-5, 2014 at the Institute of MaterialsResearch & Engineering (IMRE) in Singapore.1
IntroductionThe global water challengeWith the world’s population expectedto rise from 7 billion in 2014 to 9 billion by2050 1 and continuous industrial growthacross the globe, water has become acritical strategic resource.2 Although 70per cent of our planet is covered withwater, saline water in seas and oceansmakes up about 97 per cent of this amountand only 3 per cent can be counted asfreshwater. The total usable freshwatersupply for ecosystems and humans is amere 0.5 per cent of all freshwaterresources. The remaining 2.5 per cent islocked up as ice in the Antarctica, the Arcticand glaciers. Currently, 748 million peopleworldwide lack access to an improvedwater supply and 2.5 billion lack access toimproved sanitation.3Today, 54 per cent of the world’spopulation lives in urban areas. By 2050,this figure will increase to 66 per cent.4According to the United Nations (UN), theworld’s urban population is expected tosurpass six billion by 2045, having grownfrom 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in2014. Asia, despite its lower level ofurbanization, is home to 53 per cent of theworld’s urban population, followed byEurope with 14 per cent, and Latin Americaand the Caribbean with 13 per cent. By2050, India is projected to add 404 4/sep/18/world-population-new-study-11bn-21002 The Earth Institute at Columbia University providesinteractive geo-charts that highlight water challenges around theworld, using dependency ratios (the dependency ratio is thepercentage of renewable water resources that originate outside acountry). ater-challenges-around-the-world/3 WHO/UNICEF, Millennium Development Goals, 2015Report on Water & Sanitation, Joint Monitoring Program, Geneva– “Water, sanitation and hygiene: WASH Post 2015,”http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user upload/resources/JMP-A5-English-2pp.pdf4 “World’s population increasingly urban with more thanhalf living in urban areas,” July 10, an dwellers, China 292 million andNigeria 212 million.Coupleddemographicsandurbanization is the focus on water as acriterion for assessing the physical,economic and environmental viability ofenergy projects. Energy and water areinterdependent and the water–energynexus is a significant factor that cannot beignored. Water is used extensively inpowergeneration,theextraction,transportation and processing of fossilfuels, and agricultural irrigation. Similarly,energy is vital to power systems thatcollect, transport, distribute and treatwater. In 2010, global water withdrawalsfor energy production were estimated at583 billion cubic meters (bcm), or some 15per cent of the world’s total waterwithdrawals.5 Of that, water consumption– the volume withdrawn but not returnedto its source – was 66 bcm or about 11 percent of energy-related water withdrawals.Water resources are finite. Its unreliableand declining quality are major issues.Producing potable water to meet the demandsof an increasing urban population is becominga challenge of competing priorities: increasedwater re-allocation from agriculture to urbandemands, degraded water quality, depletedgroundwater, an increased need for watersanitation services, and threatened food andeconomic security. Harnessing water requiresinfrastructure for a steady supply of water,efficient equipment to collect and treat water,and the re-use of resources to conserve water.Industry players include petrochemicals, steel,oil and gas, mining, chemical and consumergoods, power generation, and municipalsupplies. The diversity of stakeholders andtheir sometimes conflicting demands addcomplexity to an already challenging problem5 International Energy Agency (IEA), “Water for energy: Isenergy becoming a thirstier resource?” Excerpt from the WorldEnergy Outlook bsite/2012/WEO 2012 Water Excerpt.pdf2
that perhaps could create new opportunitiesfor collaboration and innovation.Singapore: A story of four taps6The Singapore water story is a uniqueexample of how a country with a watersupply that is more than 50 per cent nonpotable, has used fore-sighting andstakeholder engagement to create astrategic response incorporating riskplanning and public private partnerships.Dr. Lim Mong Hoo6 talks about howSingapore’s Public Utilities Board (PUB)has to work closely with land-use planningagencies such as the Urban RedevelopmentAuthority (URA) and the EconomicDevelopment Board (EDB) to bettercoordinate the siting of urban developmentprojects and industrial clusters for moreeffective water management planning.Singapore uses four “nationaltaps” – local catchment, NEWater,desalinated water, imported water – tomanage the entire water cycle from thesourcing, collection, purification and supply ofdrinking water, to the treatment of used waterand stormwater management. Boasting oneTwo innovations in Singapore thatmerit greater attention are NEWater,7 ahigh grade reclaimed water purified usingmembrane technologies developed byHyflux, and the Deep Tunnel SewerageSystem, a used water superhighway tocentralize the reclamation of used water bylinking existing sewerage pipes fromhomes and industries to water reclamationplants.of the world’s lowest percentages (5 per cent)for unaccounted-for water, Singapore has 17reservoirs and a total catchment area that istwo-thirds of the island’s land area. Itslargest catchment area, Marina Catchment, isan urban catchment of 10,000 ha that is 1/6the size of Singapore.It is also important to note thatSingapore uses pricing to recover the fullcost of its water production and supply,8and create shared ownership andresponsible usage of Singapore’s waterresources. Singapore’s water tariff is oneof the highest in Asia, excluding Japan.96 Dr Lim Mong Hoo (Chief Specialist (Water Quality), PUBWater Quality Office) contributed significantly to this discussion.Presentation “Our Singapore’s Water Story – ABC Programme.”7 NEWater capacity currently meets 30 per cent ofSingapore’s water needs and expects to meet 55 per cent ofSingapore’s water demands by 2060. Hyflux membraneproducts and systems have been installed in 400 locationsworldwide.8 px9 In Global Water Intelligence's 2012 survey of water tariffsfor 308 cities in 102 countries, Singapore's water tariff ofUS 1.68 (S 2.07) per cubic meter (based upon consumption of15 cubic meters per month) was marginally lower than theglobal average of US 1.98 per cubic meter. Gurdev Singh, “Whenthe price is right,” March 1, 2013,http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest News/World/Story/A1Story20130301-405631.html3
Managing the completewater cycleThe Asia-Pacific region is home to 60per cent of the world’s population but hasonly 36 per cent of its water resources.10Per capita water availability is the lowestin the world. The region has some of theworld’s fastest-growing megacities, adevelopment driven by internal migrationand urbanization. Between 2010 and2025, a predicted 700 million people willbe added to the growing numbersrequiring municipal water services.It is no surprise that water-richcountries, such as Malaysia, Indonesia,Bhutan and Papua New Guinea, are facingurbanwatersupplyandqualityconstraints, particularly from domesticsewage. Approximately 150 to 250 millioncubic meters per day of untreatedwastewater from urban areas aredischarged into open water bodies orleached into the a.shtmlAccording to a January 2013 BloombergNew Energy Finance study on water reuse,the USA and Europe discharge 90 per centof their wastewater annually, but directlyre-use only 6 per cent and 2 per centrespectively.11 China treats around 80 percent of its wastewater but directly re-usesonly 8 per cent. In the Middle East andNorth Africa, only 40 per cent of municipalwastewater is treated for use inagriculture, and 8 per cent for reuse, whilethe remainder is discharged into the oceanor other water bodies.An American Chemical Society report in2012 anticipated that seven in 10 of themore than 3,100 US counties could riskfreshwater shortages by 2050, owing toincreasing water demand and climatechange impacts.1211 Amena H Saiyid, “Water scarcity drives US communitiestoward smarter use, recycling,” March 24, ortages-in-hundreds-of-us-counties-by2050.html4
Water shortages arise in three ways:environmental change (human-induceddecline in the quantity or quality of aresource), population growth (reduction inper-capita availability), and unequaldistribution(theconcentrationofresources in the hands of the few). 13According to Thomas F Homer-Dixon,countries need technical ingenuity (todevelop technologies that compensate forenvironmental loss) and social ingenuity(to create organizations and institutions tobuffer people from the effects of scarcityand provide the right incentives fortechnological entrepreneurs) to managescarcity.Singapore, with a land area of 710 sqkm, a population of 5.3 million, domesticwater consumption per capita of 151liters/day,14 and an average water demandof 1.8 million cubic meters/day (400million gallons/day), seems to haveemployed both technical and socialingenuity to manage its limited waterresources. It uses a centralized approachto achieve water security and reducedependency on external resources, andcombines both supply-side and demandside management strategies to create alarge-scale urban water infrastructure andan integrated water resource management(IWRM) network that is dynamic,collaborative and sustainable. 1513 Thomas F Homer-Dixon, “Environmental scarcities andviolent conflicts: Evidence from cases,” iheid/files/shared/summer/IA2009 readings/MD1.pdf14 The respective targets for 2020 and 2030 are 147liters/day and 140 liters/day actsheet%20-%20Water%20Demand%20[web].pdf15 In 2006, the Singapore government committed S 330million to fund innovation and capability building in theenvironment and water sector. That year, the Environment andWater Industry Programme Office (EWI) – an inter-agency bodyled by the Public Utilities Board (PUB), the national wateragency, and the Economic Development Board (EDB) – wasestablished to manage this R&D funding. In 2011, an additionalS 140 million was pumped into the sector. PUB won the 2007Stockholm Industry Water Award and was named Water Agencyof the Year at the Global Water Awards c outreach and educationIn 2000, the Los Angeles Department ofWater and Power (LADWP) announced thecompletion of the Donald C Tillman waterreclamation plant in Van Nuys, capable ofproviding water to 120,000 homes.16 Theplan was for sewage to be treated at theplant and then pumped to spreading fieldsnear Hansen Dam where, over five years, itwould filter through sandy soil and gravelinto an underground reservoir. 17 Publicopposition greeted the announcement,partly as a result of inopportune timing18and even though the LADWP assuredresidents that the treated water from theTillman plant would be “almost potable”and have “a purity indistinguishable fromunpolluted rainwater,” it could notovercome the “yuck factor” thataccompanied public perception.In2007,variousstakeholderscomprising community leaders, electedofficials, environmental and recreationalgroups, and local visionaries completed theLos Angeles River Master Plan, outlining a20-year blueprint for restoring andmanaging the river (to maintain floodprotection and safety, as well asenvironmentalconservationandcelebration of community neighborhoods).In May 2014, the Army Corps of Engineersendorsed a 1 billion commitment insupport of the plan to revitalize the river;funding will be shared among federal, stateand local agencies. The LA story highlightsthe importance of timing, strategic16 The department is preparing a study on the feasibility ofdirect potable reuse in California by 2016, according toinformation on its website. By 2035, the city projects a demandfor more than 168,000 acre feet per year of imported water evenafter implementing non-potable reuse and groundwaterreplenishment r-use-recycling.html17 Marc H Haefele and Anna Sklar, “Revisiting ‘toilet to tap’,”August 26, 2007, -story.html Gerald Silver, President ofHomeowners of Encino, was credited with popularizing the“toilet to tap” tag.18 The announcement was made just before an openmayoral contest in 2001 that included Valley secession on theballot. Hence, the engineering triumph became clouded bypolitical nuances.5
preparation and stakeholder engagement.Similarly, the Singapore water storyembraces these three elements, togetherwith public private participation, as criticalsuccess factors in the water innovationframework. Public outreach efforts throughthe organization of workshops, seminars,exhibitions and community engagementevents help to educate citizens and createcollective ownership of Singapore’s waterassets.Even then, the “yuck factor”associated with treated wastewater(NEWater) remains a barrier to publicconsumption.19Singapore’s IWRM achievements in themunicipal sector have gained globalrecognition through the organization of anannual Singapore International WaterWeek (SIWW) that converges policymakers, industry leaders, experts andpractitioners to address challenges,showcase technologies and hip. 20R&D is activelypromoted through the establishment of aWaterHub in Singapore, providing sharedfacilities and lab testing capabilities, as wellas networking, intelligence sharing andpartnership opportunities.19 NEWater is primarily used as non-potable water byindustrial and commercial customers in Singapore, e.g., forcooling and wafer fabrication processes, and is located inindustrial clusters to meet both supply and es/default.aspx20 SIWW 2014 recorded S 14.5 billion in total value fromdeals made and attracted over 20,000 participants from 118countries. alplatform-share-and6
Tanzania: a community response21Access to, and use of, water resourceshas global implications. Water securityand safety concerns have a direct impacton food security and safety, health, energysecurity and economic prosperity. Watersecurity depends on the availability andreliability of water sources while watersafety hinges on the quality of the sourcewateranditsprotectionfromcontamination.Risks include naturaldisasters (e.g., storms) and anthropogenicthreats that encompass population growth,industry, agriculture, transport, water usepractices, and climate change.Water sources vary widely, depending onlocation and economic capacity, frommunicipal sources for urban communitiesto multiple sources (wells, boreholes,rivers, streams, rainwater harvest) forrural communities.Singapore is an urban center that hasaccess to funds and resources, includingtechnology, that it can use in its watermanagementprogram.Inlessindustrialized countries, where access to,and use of, such resources is limited, thenatural recourse is to create local solutionsto address water issues. Prof Isai T Urasatalks about Tanzania where wastewaterstabilization ponds (WSPs) are a naturalmethod of wastewater treatment. Theyconsist of a series of shallow, man-made,anaerobic facultative and maturationponds that remove organic contaminantsby natural biodegradation, requiring noexternal input, chemical treatment ordisinfectant.WSP technology isparticularly suited for tropical regionswhere the intensity of the sunlight isfavored for the natural waste removalprocess, that is, for communities withlimited economic capacities.21 Prof Isai T Urasa contributed significantly to thissegment. Gii WITS Presentation: “Water Resource Developmentand Management.”A typical wastewater treatment facilityin the USA uses mechanical and chemicalprocesses, and may have up to three stagesof treatment – primary, secondary andtertiary – while a WSP system comprises aprimary and two secondary facultativeponds and maturation ponds, accompaniedby a distribution chamber. The facultativeponds are designed to remove organiccontaminants by natural biodegradation:the upper portion is aerobic while thelower portion is anaerobic. Facultativeponds also allow suspended solids to settle.Maturation ponds, on the other hand, aremore aerobic, promoting oxidationprocesses and allowing the removal ofnutrients and pathogens. Threats to pondefficiency include overloading due toincreased input, sludge build-up, algalblooms, plant material, and other types ofdebris.The Njoro community water project inTanzania was established in 2000; in 2001,it established partnerships with EgertonUniversity, a local institution, and theCatholic diocese of Nakuru, a nongovernmental organization (NGO). Theoperational features of this projectempowered it to develop capital, seekcommunity participation, and use anintegrated management technology toengage actively in policy making as well asincorporate poverty alleviation initiatives.Njoro had 15,000 inhabitants who livedin a semi-arid region that experiencedrainfall of 100 cm/year.The Njorocommunity used source water fromboreholes and faced the challenge ofsuspectwaterqualityinvolvingmicrobiological contamination associatedwith poor sanitation services andagriculture, as well as a high salt content(where the fluoride levels were more than10 ppm, compared to safe fluoride levels of1.0 to 1.5 ppm).The project established communalwater supply points and set up a7
management committee comprising 11members, including six women. It alsointroduced user fees and providedindividual consumer connections thathelped in the capacity building process.Thepartnershipsecuredfinancialresources, provided water managementand distribution expertise, and facilitatedaccess to essential technical skills such aswell construction, water distributionnetworks, water quality assessment andassurance.According to Dr. Urasa, researchopportunities for university faculty andstudents were created in the form of waterquality index measurements: biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD)/chemical oxygendemand (COD), pH, nutrients and heavymetals. Source water quality assessmentswere made using physical/chemicalparameters to analyze the impact ofpesticides and land use practices, as well asbacterial contamination.To mitigate/remove the fluoridecontent in the water, a bone charpurification process using cow or bovinebone was introduced. Animal bone wascollected from the community and througha university/community/NGO partnership,the bone was converted to a defluoridationfilter using a process of charring andgrinding. The bone char was placed inpackets fitted with faucets and communalwater tanks were retrofitted accordingly.The Tanzanian water project is a goodexample of a local community response toa water need. Significant features of thisIWRM program included research andtraining strategies, consistent operationalmonitoring,thetransferofnewtechnologies and new knowledge, aided bythe presence of community guidelines y rural populations canbenefit from small infrastructure schemesthat can provide water and sanitationservices in a manner that consumes fewerresources, is flexible and sustainable, andcosts less.Small infrastructure ordistributed networks allow for bettercontrol over locally appropriate efficiencymeasures and promotes greater resiliency,empowering communities by creating alocal multiplier effect through scalabilityand adaptability. Coordination betweenengineers, chemists and policy makers isboth a prerequisite and an outcome,reinforcing the power of a multidisciplinary approach toward a globalchallenge.Water Innovation: the need for context and education22Before embarking on a discussion of innovation in the water sector, it would be useful todetermine the impetus for innovation (why), the priorities for innovation (what), where the effortsof individual innovators fit in the big picture (where and who), and how the global, multidisciplinary, multi-stakeholder innovation efforts can be coordinated (how) to facilitate sustainedaccess to water services and water quality standards for all.According to Prof Garrick E Louis, innovation for water treatment and supply can be defined asthe development of artifacts to improve the performance of the water sector. Artifacts includedevices, policies, programs, and processes. Measures of performance in the sector include quantity,22Prof Garrick Louis contributed significantly to this segment. Gii WITS Presentation: “Innovation for Development: The DrinkingWater Challenge.”8
quality, accessibility, efficiency, affordability to users, profitability to service providers, theenvironmental impact and sustainability of the service lifecycle, and its resilience in the face ofchallenges.Governments understand that water research and innovation currently lack a strategic approachto the highly diverse and interrelated challenges presented by the water ecosystem. The need for acoherent and unifying framework that embraces diversity, complexity and innovation is critical tothe coordination of different public sector agencies, as well as the promotion of public privatesector collaboration across geographical boundaries.The water innovation grid: building capacityDr. Louis has identified eight capacity building factors that determine sustained access toadequate safe water and sanitation services.1. InstitutionalPolicies, programs, procedures2. Human resourcesProfessional, skilled, trained – literate, untrained – illiterate3. TechnicalSupply chain, support services4. Economic/FinancialPublic and private suppliers, bond service, fees or generaltaxes, grants-in-aid5. Environmental/Natural resourcesCarrying capacity of media, seasonal capacity of sources andsinks6. EnergyGrid electricity, reliability, intensity7. Socio-culturalEffective participation rate8. ServiceQuantity, qualityThese factors can be used to assess thepriorities for water innovation across allthe unit processes in water treatment andsupply, such as abstraction, ly other issues can be assessed,such as financing or O&M.A discussion of water managementissues inevitably revolves around threedistinct elements: economics, water qualityand the environment. In fact, these threeissues are interconnected and need to beconsidered in context and relation to eachother rather than separately. In order tomanage water security effectively, the useof economic and policy instruments needsto be considered in terms of the impact onsociety and the environment, that is, thetriple bottom-line (having economic, socialand environmental implications), and aspart of a wider IWRM framework.IWRM is a framework designed toimprove the management of waterresources based on four key principlesadopted at the 1992 Dublin Conference onWater and the Rio de Janeiro Summit onSustainable Development. These principleshold that: (1) freshwater is a finite andvulnerable resource essential to sustainlife, development, and the environment; (2)water development and managementshould be based on a participatoryapproach, involving users, planners, andpolicy makers at all levels; (3) women play9
a central part in the provision,management, and safeguarding of water;and (4) water has an economic value in allits competing uses and should berecognized as an economic good.23Stakeholder engagement, as evidencedin public private partnerships, isrecognized as a critical success factor informulating local responses to meetingIWRM needs. Ultimately, the major benefitsof IWRM include the alleviation of povertyand disease, water conservation and reuse, agricultural production and ruralwater supply, the protection of aquaticecosystems, capacity building throughpublic participation, and a multidisciplinary approach to water treatmentand innovation.water sustainability includes outreach tothe public through community engagementand education, and active participationwith markets, reinforcing the importanceof capacity development as identified in thewater innovation grid.Singapore has achieved considerablesuccess in its water management byanchoringitswatersustainabilitymeasures in a strong institutionalframework that includes integrated masterplanning and development and dynamicurban governance.24 It understands that itneeds to build a diversified and sustainablesupply of water using, among other efforts,membrane technology 25 to develop new,low-cost and improved membrane systemsto assist in water treatment, desalinationand water reclamation. Its strategy for23 Chris White, “Integrated water resources management:What it is and why is it used,” June 10, -why-is-it-used/– citing the International Conference of Water and theEnvironment (ICWE), The Dublin Statement on Water andSustainable Development, nglish/icwedece.html24 Centre for Liveable Cities (Singapore) and Civil ServiceCollege (Singapore), Liveable Sustainable Cities: A Framework,2014 –http://www.clc.gov.sg/documents/books/CLC CSCLiveable&SustainableCities.pdf25 The Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC),headed by Associate Professor Wang Rong at the NanyangTechnological University (NTU), was set up in 2008 to spearheadSingapore’s R&D efforts in fundamental and applied membranescience and technology. The linkages between the economicdevelopment of Singapore and water sustainability are evident inthe two stakeholder partners – the Environment & WaterIndustry Development Council and Economic DevelopmentBoard – that support SMTC.10
The power of education: MOOCsIn February 2014, the InternationalWorkshop on Governance ‘of’ and ‘for’Sustainable Development Goals, organizedby the United Nations University Instituteof Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS), the EarthSystem Governance Project and thePOST2015 project (hosted by the TokyoInstitute of Technology and sponsored bythe Ministry of Environment, Japan),resulted in a series of policy briefs, thesecond of which advocated “water y challenges. In discussionsabout the Post-2015 Development Agenda,education was considered a major targetdomain.26Global education outreach in the formof Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)is one way to focus on the needs of the“water–education nexus.” In 2007, the firstcourses about water treatment wereoffered as OpenCourseWare (OCW). 27 InNovember 2013, Delft University ofTechnology (TU Delft) offered two MOOCcourses on solar energy and anintroduction to water treatment, the latterof which received a registration of 29,000students on the edX platform.28 In additionto the 19 MOOCs TU Delft offers are over140 OCW courses that have 1,000 uniqueonline visitors per day.MOOCs provide a global platform forthe delivery of knowledge on demand. Prof26 Post-2015 UNU-IAS Policy Brief #2: “Linking educationand water in the sustainable development goals,” (UnitedNations, 2013a; OWG, 2014; SDSN, evelopment-goals27 The OpenCourseWare movement started in 1999 whenthe University of Tubingen in Germany published videos of itslectures online. In October 2002, MIT launched its OCW services,followed by Yale, the University of Michigan and the University ofCalifornia Berkeley. Today, MIT offers materials from 2,150courses and enjoys 125 million visitors at its OCW website.http://ocw.mit.edu/about/28 The MOOC phenomenon took off in 2012, dominated bythree MOOC platforms: UdaCity, edX and Coursera. MOOCsprovide courses on university-level subject matter delivered byuniversity faculty, are free and have no admissionsrequirements. vider-a-review-of-coursera-udacity-and-edx/Doris van Halem 29 believes that waterMOOCs can positively influence the way inwhich chemists and other scientists willaccess education. 30In her opinion,increased knowledge across variousexperience levels and geographies willpositively affect the field of watertreatment globally. To increase the impactof MOOCs, TU Delft is planning translationsinto Arabic and Chinese, and collaborateswith local partners in Mozambique andColombia.MOOCs also facilitate linkages betweeneducation and PhD research at TU Delft inthe areas of urb
6 Dr Lim Mong Hoo (Chief Specialist (Water Quality), PUB Water Quality Office) contributed significantly to this discussion. Presentation "Our Singapore's Water Story - ABC Programme." 7 NEWater capacity currently meets 30 per cent of Singapore's water needs and expects to meet 55 per cent of Singapore's water demands by 2060.
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of the Singapore Constitution (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2009). Thio Li-ann, A Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law (Singapore: Academy Publishing, 2012). Kevin YL Tan (ed), Essays in Singapore Legal History (Singapore: Singapore Academy of Law & Marshall
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