Critical Analysis Of Sunshine Skyway Bridge
Proceedings of Bridge Engineering 2 Conference 2007th4 May 2007, University of Bath, Bath, UKCRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SUNSHINE SKYWAY BRIDGEAdam T SayersUniversity of BathAbstract: This article provides a detailed analysis of the cable-stayed bridge, Sunshine Skyway, located inthe Tampa Bay region of Florida. It includes critiques or its structure, aesthetic form, andconstruction giving an indication of how successful it has been since its construction in 1987.Keywords: Sunshine SkywayCable-StayedPre-cast Concrete box sectionsPre-stressed tendonsAesthetics1 General IntroductionThe Sunshine Skyway Bridge is one of the world'slongest cable-stayed concrete bridges, with an overalllength of 8.9 km. It forms part of the US 19 Highway,connecting St. Petersburg and Palmetto in the Tampa Bayregion of the state of Florida. Construction of the bridgebegan in 1982 and was completed on February 7, 1987, ata total cost of 245 million. It was designed by the Figg &Muller Engineering Group, and built by the AmericanBridge Company.The bridge was commissioned to replace a steelcantilever bridge of the same name after part of it wasdestroyed in 1980. This was the result of a collisionbetween the freighter Summit Venture and one of the piersduring a server storm leading to the deaths of 35 people.As a result of this, the safety of the bridge and the need toprevent a similar disaster from occurring became one ofthe primary goals during the design of the new bridge.trestle spans are all that remains of the original bridgebuilt during the 1950’s. The high level approach sees thelevel of the bridge raise up to give the necessary clearancefor ships. Finally there is the main cable-stayed section,which has the longest span of 366m, and a clearance of59m above the water. This main span of the bridge issupported by forty-two steel cable-stays running along thecenter line of the bridge which are connected to twoslender concrete pylons that rise a further 76m above thedeck.2 AestheticsThe aesthetic appeal of a bridge plays a vital role inthe overall success of a structure. When the constructionof the bridge was completed in 1987 it was hailed asbeing a triumph in bridge design and has won numerousawards as a result. The following statement from the NewYork Times is indicative of this: ‘from an estheticstandpoint [the Sunshine Skyway Bridge] may well rankas the most impressive piece of large-scale bridge designin this country in half a century.’ [2] In order to quantifythe aesthetics of a bridge Fritz Leonhardt, one of the mostprolific bridge engineers of the 20th century set out aseries of areas to be considered which are summarisedbelow.2.1 Fulfillment of FunctionFigure.1: Sunshine Skyway geometry [1]The whole is bridge is constructed of steel and precast concrete sections. Figure 1 above shows how thebridge consists of three different sections. The low levelAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukThe Sunshine Skyway Bridge is a perfect example ofthe design philosophy, ‘form follows function.’ [3] This iswhere the combination of simple and efficient structuralsystems together with economic construction leads to anelegant and pleasing solution. The overall structure is
simple and all of its components serve an importantstructural role as well as adding to the aesthetic. It is clearto anyone using the bridge how the loads are transferredinto the pylons through the cables. This imparts a feelingof confidence towards the structure and so those using itwill not be intimidated by it.2.2 ProportionsThe proportions of a bridge can help to imply a senseof order whether it is through the use of voids and solids,or the relative sizes of the members. In the case ofSunshine Skyway the use of proportion has been fairlysuccessful however, it has failed in some areas. Whenlooking at the bridge on profile such as in fig:2 below wecan see that as the height of the bridge increases the lengthof the spans also increases and although the aspect ratiodoes not stay exactly the same we do get a sense ofthat sit on top of them leading to a rather harshdiscontinuity in the flow of the structure. This problem isclearly demonstrated in fig 3 below.2.3 OrderOne of the greatest successes of the look of thisbridge is its free flowing nature and perfect order. As youpass your eye over the top of the deck the structural linesremain unbroken for the entire length of the bridge. Thisis achieved through the use of pre-cast concrete sectionsthat are tied together using hidden post-tensioned steelcables to give an uninterrupted soffit line. The solidconcrete crash barrier serves to create a perfect line alongthe top of the deck.An aesthetic failing of many cable-stayed bridgesoccurs when multiple lines of cables are used to supportthe structure. When viewed from oblique angles thecables can give the appearance of crisscrossing makingthe structure look cluttered and awkward. The designersof Sunshine Skyway however, have decided to avoid thisissue altogether by using just a single line of cables. Thisdoes however, compromise the structural efficiency of thebridge due to a reduction in torsional strength, but it wasdecided the visual benefits would warrant this. Theoverall effect of these clean, crisp edges and orderedstructure is one of extreme elegance. A semi-harpconfiguration has been used for the cables. This is not2.4 RefinementsFigure 2: The main span at dusk in all its glory.rationality about it. The depth of the bridge deck isrelatively slender and when combined with the pair ofslender pylons that soar into the air and the steel cablestays we get a feel of lightness about the whole structure.The downfall of this structure appears when viewing thebridge from a more head-on angle. The widths of thecentral supporting piers are over double that of the pylonsOn a whole there have not been many morerefinements to this structure, other than those alreadymentioned that add to its appearance. However, certainrefinements could be made to improve matters. In order toaddress the problem pointed out with the proportions ofthe piers and the pylons, the pylons could have be taperedout towards the base and the piers could taper in towardsthe top, so that the disparity between the two would havebeen reduced.2.5 Integration into the Environment.It is important to consider how a bridge interacts withits surroundings and Sunshine skyway is no exception.The use of a cable-stayed bridge is an obvious choicewhen crossing a large expanse of open water as its sleek,slender profile and triangular plane of cables give it lookof a sailed ship skimming across the water when viewedfrom a distance. Also the subtleness of the cables duringcertain times of the day allow for uninterrupted beautifulviews such as the one seen in fig.2.2.6 TextureFigure 3: Oblique view clearly showing thedisparity between the widths of the piers and pylonsAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukIn order to distinguish between the differentstructural elements of the bridge and given each its ownidentity, a clever, but subtle use of texture has been used.The concrete of the piers has been given a rough texturewhich continues through to the two pylons at the mainspan, where as the concrete elements that form the deckand the crash barrier have a smooth finish.
2.7 Colour/CharacterThere are some extremely successful uses of colourand lighting with this bridge that helped it to develop itsown sense of character. Probably the most important partof the bridge both structurally and aesthetically are thecable stays that support the structure over its longest span.In some cable-stayed bridges colour is used to hide themto give the impression that the deck is floating. However,in this case the designers have decided to accentuate theirpresence and celebrate the role that they play by paintingthem a ‘brilliant yellow.’ This causes them stand outagainst both the sky and the rest of the structure. Thechoice of colour is symbolic not only of the name ofbridge but also of the name of the state in which it resides,‘The Sunshine State.’ As a result the bridge has becomean icon of the state and is frequented by many tourists.Further emphasis is placed on the cables during the nighttime through the use of light as shown in fig.4.Strategically placed lights high-light the cables whilstleaving the rest of the bridge in relative darkness allowingthem to be seen from miles away. This gives a wonderfulFigure 4: The Bridge at night.effect similar to that of the Alamillo Bridge in Sevillewhere the main pylon is high-lighted.The positions of the piers at the centre of the deckwith large overhangs on either side gives rise to a largeamount of shadow being cast onto them. Consequently thepiers appear to be a lot more slender than in reality furtherhelping to boost the impression of weightlessness that thisbridge is trying to convey.3 Structural Features3.1 Main SpanThe main span of bridge deck is constructed usingpre-cast concrete box-sections with a profile as shown infig.6. Each piece has a width of 29m a depth of 4.3m andweighs around 200t. The top of each of the sections formsthe actual roadway. The use of pre-cast sections is farpreferred to in-situ casting due the large costs involvedFigure 6: Cross-section of concrete sections formain spanAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukboth in terms of money and time. Each of these sections istied to the next by using internal post tensioning cables.These are set within the webs and flanges of the sectionrunning longitudinally throughout the length of thebridge. The cable stays are positioned on every secondsection to provide additional support. This greatly reducesthe amount of pre-stress required to hold the structuretogether. Post-tensioning cables are included in thebottom flange of the section in order to provide moreresistance to sagging moments. Shear keys are locatedalong the edges where two sections meet to help transferthe shear forces. Diaphragms will be added to the sectionsover the supports to increase the stiffness of the structureand to reduce the likelihood of shear punching. The use ofpre-cast sections has not however, been used to its fullpotential in this case. The current design utilises boxsections of constant cross-section through-out the entirelength of the bridge and so the top and bottom flanges aredesigned to carry both the maximum hogging moments aswell as the maximum sagging moments. Clearly, this is awaste of materials as areas of maximum sagging will benot also be subjected to the maximum hogging. A moreefficient solution is illustrated in figure 7. Here the depthsof the sections differ along the length of the bridgeFigure 7: Efficient use of differing cross-sectionsdepending on the forces that they will be subjected to. Atthe mid-section where the sagging moments will bedominant the top flange will have a greater depth. Theshear forces at this point will be low and so the width ofthe webs need only be small. Over the supports thesection well feel the opposite loads and so here thesection will have a deep bottom flange and much thickerflanges. This process would be far more costly due to theadditional work required in forming the sections.However, the savings in materials and the improvedsustainability of structure make this an extremely viableoption.3.2 Approach SpansThe structure of the approach spans is formed inmuch the same way as with the main span with preformedconcrete box-sections held together using post-tensioningcables. However, rather than having one continuoussection, the deck is split in two supported by two piers asillustrated in figure 7. Once again these sections sufferfrom the same inefficiencies as the sections used for themain span and so their structural performance could alsobe greatly improved with careful design.
N F 1.4 / cos α .N 5600 / cos 25 6170kN .Figure 7: Cross-section of pre-cast concretesections for approach spans.3.3 Cable StaysThe cable-stays that connect the deck to the pylonsare arranged in a single plane with 21 cables spanning outfrom each pylon. Each stay is formed using bundles ofhigh-tension steel cables that have been spun together.The largest stay consists of 82 strands and weighsapproximately 37-tons. These are then sheathed usingsteel tubing to provide protection from corrosion in theharsh marine environment. The stays are bolted to thedesk segments through anchorages that are embeddedbelow the road level. They then pass up through thecentral pylon and back into the corresponding section onthe opposite site. This creates a symmetrical system thatbalances the loads and reduces the bending momentsinduced in the pylon.3.3.1 Simple Cable Force CalculationChoose to use high tensile steel tendons with a yieldstrength of 1650N/mm2. Therefore the area of steelrequired will be:As 13250000 / 1650 8000mm 2 .Therefore the diameter of cable required will bearound 100mm. In reality the cables are roughly doublethis value. This disparity is not surprising due to theassumptions made in the hand calcs above. This sameprocess can be repeated for each of the stays to giveestimates of the total forces in the structure.Most conventional cable-stayed bridges consist oftwo planes of cables running along either side of the deck.This provides two planes of fixity thus giving the bridgeresistance to torsional effects. By removing one of theseplanes we also remove the structures ability to resisttorsion. Instead this has to be provided by substantiallystiffening the deck. This could have required an increasein the depth of the deck, leaving it out of proportion.However, this ill effect has been avoided due to the largenumber stays and the introduction of stiffeners within thebox-sections. Therefore the overall aesthetic has not beencompromised. An alternative solution to this problemcould have been provided by using an a-frame systemsuch as the one seen in fig 9. Here the cables all spanFigure 8: Dimensions of longest stay forcalculation of tension, t.Each cable supports two of the pr-cast concretesegments, each weighing approximately 200t. This isequivalent to a 4000kN of unfactored vertical loadrepresented by F. (The live load will be small incomparison and so will be negated in this instance). Thecable angle, θ can be calculated using:θ tan 1 76 / 160 25 .Therefore:t factored F 1.4 / sin α .t factored 5600 / sin 25 13250kN .Where 1.4 is the factor of safety for dead loads whenusing steel. This tension force will induce an axial force inthe bridge deck due to its horizontal component putting itinto compression:Adam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukFigure 9: A-frame solution to torsion problemfrom the vertical section of the pylon and so thearrangement of the cables is retained as a single plane of.However, the inclusion of a closed triangular sectionformed by the a-frame gives the structure added stiffness.3.4 Protective ‘Dolphins’Due to the disastrous history of the original SunshineSkyway, safety was paramount in the design of itsreplacement. One of the most obvious precautions takenas illustrated by fig.10 is the inclusion of 36 largeconcrete bumpers called dolphins that surround the piersclose to the shipping lane which are at the greatest riskfrom passing ships. Each of these dolphins is designed towithstand the direct impact of an 87,000-ton shiptraveling at a speed of 10knotts. This is far greater thanthat of the Summit Venture which caused the originalcollapse. The cable-stayed span provides a shipping lanethat is more than double that of the previous bridge,
making it the perfect solution for preventing a similartragedy.huge structure to sit on. For the main pylons the structurewas then built up by casting in-situ reinforced concretesegments using temporary form work. For the rest of thepiers that support the approach spans, preformed concretesections were transported to site on barges to be lifted intoposition by crane boats. Fig 11 shows this process inaction. External post-tension cables were then added tothe interior of these hollow sections which were tightenedusing jacks to put the whole structure under compression.4.2 Approach SpansFigure 10: View of the protective concrete dolphinssurrounding the bridge.4 ConstructionBecause this bridge consists of different structuralsystems the construction process was made morecomplicated than usual with multiple methods ofconstruction being used in unison in order to produce theend result. Because of the bridges location surrounded bywater it would not have been possible to use temporarypropping which is considered to be the simplest form ofIn order to construct the two parallel roadways thatapproach the main span of the bridge an overheadlaunching girder was used. This is probably the mostcommon method of pre-cast concrete construction. Itinvolves the use of a truss-girder that spans between twoof the piers, the role of which is two-fold. Firstly, it isused to winch up pre-cast segments into their approximateposition from transport barges below. Secondly, itprovides temporary support to those sections already inplace whilst the rest of the span is being completed.Temporary stress bars are put in place to tighten thestructure up into the correct position, and an epoxy glue isadded to the joints to act as both a lubricant and a sealant.Once the entire span is in place, permanent pre-stressingcables are threaded through ducts left in the concrete andare tightened using hydraulic jacks. When at the correcttension they are anchored off and grouted giving thestructure its full strength. The temporary supports canthen be removed and the girder can be launched outacross to the next span. Fig 12 gives an interpretation ofthe plant involved in this process. Due to the mammothscale of this whole operation safety is of the utmostimportance at all times, because any mistake could easilyerectionand11:as Piera resultmore oninventivetechniquesFiguresegmentsbarge beingcranedhad tobe used.into position4.1 Piers and Pylons.The first stage of construction involved the erectionof each of the piers. This process started 10m below thelevel of the water where large heavily reinforced concretefootings were constructed to form a solid base for theTension in top 0 so no additional weightis felt by the previous segmentytopPosition oftension cableeYbotFigure 12: Arrangement of the Launching GirderPP/AP.e.ybot/IMy/IFigure 13: Demonstration of the use of pre-stress during constructionAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.uk
result in serious injury or even death. There are limitationsto the spans that this technique can achieve due to theshear size and weight of the launch girder that is required.Beyond a certain length it is no longer an economicalsolution.4.3 Main Cable Stayed Span.Because of the much longer spans involved with thissection of the bridge it was not possible to continue withthe launching girder method at this stage of construction.Instead the construction team opted for a balancedcantilever approach. This involves building outwardsfrom each of the two pylons in a symmetrical manor sothat balanced is maintained about the sub-structure. Figure14 gives two perspectives of this process. A mobile liftingplatform sits at the edge of each cantilever in order lift thesupported by gantries on either side was used to cast thefinal piece of the puzzle as shown in figure 15. Ductswere cast into the section so that tensioning cables couldbe added once the concrete had gone off. This however, isnot really the best way to finish off a bridge like this dueto the large amounts of form work required. Instead itwould have been better to have left a far smaller gap sothat there is no need for expensive gantries to support thecasting.Figure 15: Large segment is left out. Formworkused from either end to cast the final piece.5 LoadingFigure 14: Lifting of pre-cast concrete section formain span (left) and view of the double cantileverconstruction nearing completion (right).concrete segments into place. As each additional segmentis added pre-stress is also added through internal cables inorder to support the weight. This is a vital part of theprocess. Figure 13 shows how the pre-stress, P acting atan eccentricity, e from the centroidal-axis, CA is added toperfectly counteract the self weight of the segment so thatno tension is transferred into the previous segments.Temporary cable-stay towers are often used duringconstruction in order to provide further support as thecantilevers span further out. This greatly reduces thehogging moment felt over the piers and so reduces theneed for increases on the deck thickness in these areas. Asa result of this cable-stayed bridges lend themselvesextremely well to this form of construction. This isbecause the presence of permanent supporting towersmeans there is no need for temporary works leading to aparticularly cost-effective solution. The final stage of thisconstruction process involves the joining of the twohalves of the cantilevers. Rather then using a pre-formedthis last section is cast in-situ in order to prevent anyissues due to lack of fit is. For this project a large sectionwas left out at the centre of the span and formworkytopTemperatureDifferentialBecause this bridge was designed and built inAmerica, it will not have been analysed using the samestructural codes that we are used to. Therefore theloadings that were used are likely to differ to those thatwould be used in a similar British design.5.1 Traffic LoadingThe Sunshine Skyway Bridge carries four lanes oftraffic and handles around 20,000 vehicles each day. Boththe north and south bound carriageways have a width ofaround 12m. If a study of the traffic loads wereundertaken using the British standards this large widthwould give rise to four ‘notional lanes’ of traffic asapposed to the two marked lanes. This is typical ofAmerican roadways due larger sizes of vehicles andgeneral culture of the country. Each of these lanes wouldthen be subjected to differing levels of both HA and HBloadings in order to find the worst possible case. Trafficcan also have various secondary affects on the loading ofthe bridge. These can come in the form of longitudinalloadings for vehicular breaking as well as from horizontalloads due to accidental skidding. A key consideration inthe design for traffic loading is to insure that the crashbarriers are able to withstand the impact of a crashinglorry in order to prevent the loss of life. Unlike with themajority of British bridges, the barriers that form 30 C0 CybotFigure 16: Stress and Strain distributions caused by variation in surface temperaturesAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukBendingStress
parapets of Sunshine Skyway consist of large, solidconcrete blocks that aim to resist such impacts rather thanstopping them elastically.the underside of the deck that is cooled by the waterbelow and kept in shade will be at a far lowertemperature.5.2 Wind5.3.1 ExemplificationThe Sunshine Skyway Bridge is located in region ofthe world that frequently experiences hurricane strengthwinds. Consequently, it was important during the designstage to insure that the structure would be able to copewith such conditions without compromising its safetyboth during and after its construction.Figure 16 shows a representation of the stress andstrain profiles that may arise from the scenario mentionedabove, assuming a temperature distribution ranging from0-30 C from the base to the top of the section and thatany expansion joint have been blocked.In order to determine the wind characteristics duringa hurricane a ‘Monte Carlo Simulation’ was carried out.This is defined as being a probabilistic model involvingan element of chance [4].This involves the use ofcomputational algorithms to simulate events when it is notfeasible to carry out actual experiments. The drawback ofusing this method without the aid of real-data forcomparisons is that the element of chance leaves room forinaccuracies. The average hourly wind speed for ahurricane with a hundred year return period was estimatedto be 105mph [5]. This then allowed for wind tunneltesting to be carried out on a 1:375 scale model of thebridge to ascertain the structural response when underboth turbulent and calm flow conditions. From thisestimates of the behaviour of the actual bridge could bemade and checked against allowable values.Each of the main piers that support the road deckacross the main span have an elliptical profile whichimprove their performance under extreme windconditions. The same cannot be said however, to the twopylons that support the cable stays. These both have muchsquarer profiles in plan and as a result are far lessefficient. This is shown by looking at the Drag Coefficient(CD) values as given in BS5400. With a height/breadthration of around 20 a square pylon will have a CD of 1.8whereas for a curved pylon it will be just 0.6. This meansthat the maximum wind gust (vc) experienced by thepylon would reduced by a factor of three which would beextremely beneficial.5.3 TemperatureThere are two possible temperature effects that canoccur in bridge engineering and each can induce hugeforces within the structure. This is especially true in thesemi-tropical climate of the Tampa-Bay region wheretemperatures of 40 C are a regular occurrence. The firstmode of effect occurs due variations in the effectivetemperature of the whole bridge. During the summermonths the bridge will be subjected to far highertemperatures than during the winter months (the same canbe said to a lesser extent between night and day).Consequently the bridge will have a propensity to expandand contract as the temperature varies. The second formof temperature effect that may occur may arise fromvariations in temperature between different areas of thestructure. For example during the peak summer monthsambient temperatures of 40 C combined with directsunlight may see temperature of the deck surface reachingas much as 30 C above the datum temperatures, where asAdam T Sayers – ats21@bath.ac.ukThe temperature distribution through the section hasbeen simplified from the standard distribution forconcrete sections as shown below:T1h1T2h2h3T3This was necessary because the non-uniformtemperature distribution gives rise to non-planar stressesand strains making the calculations of forces and bendingmoments impossible.The strain, ε can be calculated using equation (1):ε ΔT α .(1)Where ΔT is the temperature differential and α is thethermal coefficient of expansion, which for concrete isequal to 12 10-6/ C. Therefore:ε 3.6 10 4 .Equation (2) can then be used to calculate the maximumstress, σmax.σ max ε max E.(2)Where E is the young’s modulus of the material which isaround 30GPa for concrete. Therefore:σ max 10.8MPa.If we assume the CA is 3m up from the base of thesection, we can calculate the total σaxial as the σmoment is 0about this point. Therefore:σ axial (10.8 3) / 4 7.5MPa .(3)Along the bottom flange σaxial will be equal to σmoment nowthat we have these values we can ascertain the values ofthe Axial force, N and the Moment, M that have been
induced in the structure from the following two equationsrespectively:N σ axial A .(4)M bottom (σ axial I ) / ybottom .(5)To approximate the cross sectional area and secondmoment of area, a simplified square box-section was usedwith an estimated thickness of 200mm of both the flangesand the webs. This gave the values of 9.36m2 and35.5 10m4 respectively. Therefore the final values for thetemperature effects on the bridge are:N 70.2 MN .bearing has been out-dated due the advent of ‘rubber pot’bearings. These perform just as well as Teflon bearings interms of flexibility but for a fraction of the cost.Therefore it would make sense to install them the nexttime the bearing need to be replaced.The final design feature of this bridge that helps it toperform well under the effects of temperature is the cleverdesign of the two central piers that support the cable-staypylons. Although being very deep in plan their profile hasbeen greatly reduced by forming them from two separatesections as apposed to just one much thinker one asdemonstrated by fig 18. This allows them to be very stiffin bending whilst still being flexible in terms of lateralmovements thus alleviating the stresses that would haveotherwise built up.M bottom 89MNm .Although only rough estimates this example clearlydemonstrates how large the effects that temperature canhave on a structure can be. These values should becombined with other load types to ascertain the worstpossible case.If the bridge is a rigid structure the movementsbrought on by the effects of temperature may induce hugebending moments throughout and could even lead tocollapse. Certain attempts have been made with the designof this bridge to try to mitigate these ill effects. Firstlyfour expansion joints have been included along the lengthof the bridge deck. The arrangement of the fingers asshown in fig 17, allows the bridge to expand and contractby quite large amounts whilst still allowing traffic to flowFigure 18: A clear view of the use of twin slenderpiers to add flexibility.6 Durability and ServiceabilityOne of the biggest problems that Sunshine Skywayfaces is the harsh marine environment in which it islocated. The high salinity levels in the air coupled withthe extreme humidity levels of the tropical climate makefor a highly destructive concoction that is constantlyattacking the structural integrity of the bridge.Figure 17: Example of the type of expansion jointused in this bridgeover them. This prevents the build up of stresses withinthe structure. One draw back of such a joint is that anydifferential vertical movements may cause the fingers tosplay upwards risking damage to the tyres of passingvehicles. A second disadvantage to the use of expansionjoints is that they require careful maintenance in order toinsure they are kept free from any blockages. If they dobecome
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