Chapter 4, Shoreline Cleanup Of Oil Spills - US EPA
Shoreline CleanupOf Oil Spills4INTRODUCTIONFRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas are importantpublic and ecological resources. However, their cleanlinessand beauty, and the survival of the species that inhabitthem, can be threatened by accidents that occur when oil isproduced, stored, and transported. Oil is sometimesspilled from vessels directly into waterways; spills fromland-based facilities can flow into waters and foulshorelines. These accidents affect both oceans andfreshwater environments. Despite the best efforts ofresponse teams to contain spilled oil, some of it maycontaminate shorelines of oceans and lakes, banks of riversand streams, and other ecologically sensitive habitatsalong the water’s edge. To help protect these resourcesfrom damage and to preserve them for public enjoymentand for the survival of numerous species, cleaning upshorelines following oil spills has become an importantpart of oil spill response.SHORELINES: PUBLIC ANDENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCESFRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas serve as homesto a variety of wildlife during all or part of the year. Manybird species build their nests on sand or among pebbles,while others regularly wander the shoreline searching forfood. Marine mammals, such as elephant seals and sealions, come ashore to breed and bear their pups. Fish, suchas salmon, swim near shorelines on their uprivermigrations during spawning season, and their offspringswim through these same areas on their trips to the sea inthe following year. In addition, freshwater environmentsare important to human health as they are often used fordrinking water and are home to many different mammals,aquatic birds, fish, insects, microorganisms, and vegetation.Freshwater and marine shorelines also provide publicrecreation throughout the world. Rivers, streams, andEPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response other freshwater bodies are known for their fishingactivities, while many beaches are famous for their wideexpanses of beautiful sand and rugged rocky cliffs,providing opportunities for sports such as swimming,boating, and windsurfing. When response teams developstrategies for cleaning up a shoreline after an oil spill, theymust consider the characteristics of the shoreline and thenatural and recreational resources it provides.FACTORS AFFECTING CLEANUP DECISIONSFREQUENTLY, oil spills will start on land and reach shoreareas. Whenever possible, control and cleanup of an oilspill begins immediately. If the oil spill can be controlled, itis less likely that it will reach sensitive freshwater ormarine habitats. If the oil does reach the shore, however,decisions about how best to remove it must be made.These decisions will be based on factors such as thefollowing: Type of oil spilled Geology of the shoreline and rate of water flow Type and sensitivity of biological communities likely tobe affectedEach of these factors is described below.Type of Oil SpilledLighter oils tend to evaporate and degrade (break down)very quickly; therefore, they do not tend to be deposited inlarge quantities on banks and shorelines. Heavier oils,however, tend to form a thick oil-and-water mixture calledmousse, which clings to rocks and sand. Heavier oilsexposed to sunlight and wave action also tend to formdense, sticky substances known as tar balls and asphalt thatare very difficult to remove from rocks and sediments.Therefore, deposits from heavy oils generally require more17
aggressive cleanup than those from lighter ones. Shorelineclean-up of inland spills usually involves lighter oils.Inland oil spills often involve refined petroleum products,although spills of other types of oil are not uncommon.Spills in marine ecosystems often involve crude oils andheavy fuel oils originating from accidents during tankeroperations.Geology of the Shoreline and Rate of Water FlowShorelines can vary dramatically in their forms andcompositions. Some marine shorelines are narrow, withbeaches formed from rounded or flattened cobbles andpebbles; some are wide and covered in a layer of sand orbroken shell fragments; and still others are steep cliffs withno beach at all. Generally, freshwater shorelines arecomposed of sediments and may be lined with trees orheavy vegetation. The composition and structure of thebank will determine the potential effects of oil on theshoreline.Oil tends to stick to sediments and to the surfaces ofcobbles and pebbles. It also flows downward in the spacesbetween cobbles, pebbles, and sand grains, andaccumulates in lower layers of sediments. Oil that sticks tosediment particles suspended in the water column, or tocobbles and pebbles along the bank, is exposed to sunlightand waves, which help it to degrade and make it lesshazardous to organisms that come into contact with it. Oilthat sticks to rocks and pebbles can be wiped or washedoff. Oil that flows onto sandy banks, however, can“escape” downward into sand, making it difficult to cleanup and reducing its ability to degrade.The effects of an oil spill on marine and freshwater habitatsvaries according to the rate of water flow and the habitat’sspecific characteristics. Standing or slow-moving water,such as marshes or lakes, are likely to incur more severeimpacts than flowing water, such as rivers and streams,because spilled oil tends to “pool” in the water and canremain there for long periods of time. In calm waterThe type of environment needs to beconsidered when devising a cleanup plan.conditions, affected habitats may take years to recover.When oil spills into a flowing river, the impact may be lesssevere than in standing water because the river currentacts as a natural cleaning mechanism. Currents tend to bethe strongest along the outside edge of a bend in a riverwhere the current tends to flow straight into the outsidebank before being deflected downstream. Oilcontamination is usually heavy in this area becausecurrents drive the oil onto the bank.In marine environments and on large lakes and rivers,waves affect the movement and spreading of oil spills inseveral different ways. Initially, the oil spreads to form athin film, called an oil slick. The slick appears smoothcompared to the water around it. Momentum is thentransferred from the waves to the oil slick. Small wavestend to push oil slicks in the direction of wavepropagation. This makes oil slicks move slightly faster thanthe surface of the water that they are floating on. Short,relatively steep waves can result in a surface current thatwill move the oil in a downwind direction. As wavesbreak, the resulting plunging water creates a turbulentwake, carrying particles of oil down into the water column.Type and Sensitivity of Biological CommunitiesBiological communities differ in their sensitivity to oilspills and the physical intrusion that may be associatedwith various cleanup methods. Some ecosystems seem torecover quickly from spills, with little or no noticeableharm, while others experience long-term harmful effects.Animals and plants may be affected by the physicalproperties of spilled oil, which prevent respiration,photosynthesis, or feeding. Animals, such as elephantseals, which depend on the marine environment forbreeding and pupping, can lose their ability to stay warmin cold water when their skin comes into contact with oil.Birds lose their ability to fly and to stay warm when theirfeathers are coated with oil, and fish can suffocate whentheir gills are covered with oil. An oil spill can disrupt anecosystem’s food chain because it is toxic to some plantswhich other organisms may depend on for food. Inaddition, oil in sediments like those that are common infreshwater shorelines may be very harmful becausesediment traps the oil and affects the organisms that livein, or feed off, the sediments.CLEANUP PROCESSES AND METHODSBOTH NATURAL processes and physical methods aid inthe removal and containment of oil from shorelines.Sometimes physical methods are used to enhance naturallyoccurring processes. Examples of a technology that usesboth natural processes and physical methods to clean upan oil spill are biodegradation and bioremediation, which aredescribed later.18 Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
Natural ProcessesNatural processes that result in the removal of oil from thenatural environment include evaporation, oxidation, andbiodegradation.Evaporation occurs when liquid components in oil areconverted to vapor and released into the atmosphere. Itresults in the removal of lighter-weight substances in oil. Inthe first 12 hours following a spill, up to 50 percent of thelight-weight components may evaporate. Since the mosttoxic substances in oil tend to be those of lightest weight,this evaporation decreases the toxicity of a spill over time.Oxidation occurs when oxygen reacts with the chemicalcompounds in oil. Oxidation causes the complex chemicalcompounds in oil to break down into simpler compoundsthat tend to be lighter in weight and more able to dissolvein water, allowing them to degrade further.Biodegradation occurs when naturally occurring bacterialiving in the water or on land consume oil, which they canuse to provide energy for their various biological needs.When oil is first spilled, it may be toxic to some bacteria,which makes the initial rate of biodegradation quite slow.As the oil evaporates and the more toxic substances areremoved, the population of bacteria grows andbiodegradation activity accelerates.In nature, biodegradation is a relatively slow process. Itcan take years for a population of microorganisms todegrade most of the oil spilled onto a shoreline. However,the rate at which biodegradation occurs can be acceleratedby the addition of nutrients, such as phosphorus andnitrogen, that encourage growth of oil-degrading bacteria.This process is called biostimulation. Biodegradation ratescan also be increased by adding more microorganisms tothe environment, especially species that are already usedto consuming the type of oil spilled. Addingmicroorganisms is referred to as bioaugmentation. The useof nutrients or the addition of microorganisms toencourage biodegradation is called bioremediation.When oil spill response personnel develop bioremediationstrategies, they have to consider the effects of waves, tides,and currents on the nutrients and microorganisms they areapplying to oil-contaminated areas. Contamination ofcoastal areas by oil from offshore spills usually occurs inthe intertidal zone where waves and tides can quicklycarry away dissolved nutrients. Adding nutrients may notbe effective on beaches with a great deal of wave actionand tidal flows because most of the nutrients will be lost todilution. On calmer shorelines, adding nutrients may be aneffective bioremediation strategy.With respect to freshwater shorelines, an oil spill is mostlikely to have the greatest impact on wetlands or marshesrather than on a wide shoreline zone like a marineintertidal zone. Less research has been conducted in thesetypes of environments, so it is not yet known how wellbioremediation enhances oil removal. The same principalsapply to this environment as a marine environment,EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response namely, that nutrients should be applied in ways that willkeep them from washing away from the affected areas longenough to affect the enhanced treatment. In wetlands,bioremediation may not work as well because there is lessoxygen in the sediments than there is on a sandy beach;even with added nutrients, microorganisms may not haveenough oxygen to effectively combat the spill.EPA is currently studying the biodegradability of nonpetroleum oils (vegetable oils and animal fats) and theirimpacts on freshwater and marine environments duringbiodegradation.Chapter three discusses bioremediation and otheralternative cleanup approaches.Physical MethodsPhysical removal of oil from shorelines, and especiallybeaches, is time-consuming and requires much equipmentand many personnel. Methods used to physically clean oilfrom shorelines include the following: Wiping with absorbent materials Pressure washing Raking or bulldozingBefore physical cleaning methods are used, booms made ofabsorbent material are often set up in the water along theedge of the bank. Booms prevent oil released during bankcleanup activities from returning to the water and containthe oil so that it can be skimmed from the water for properdisposal.Wiping with Absorbent MaterialsMaterials that are capable of absorbing many times theirweight in oil can be used to wipe up oil from contaminatedshorelines. These materials are often designed as largesquares, much like paper towels, or shaped into “mops.”The squares or mops are used to wipe the shoreline or oilyrocks during which time the absorbents are filled with asmuch oil as they can hold.There are advantages to the use of absorbents. They can beused to clean up any kind of oil on any shoreline that canbe reached by response personnel. The use of absorbents isgenerally not harmful to the shoreline itself or to theorganisms that live on it, and no material is left behindfollowing the cleanup effort. Some sorbents are reusable,reducing the need for disposal after a spill.Wiping with absorbent materials requires the use of a largequantity of material and several personnel. Personnel mustwear proper protective clothing to minimize direct contactwith the oil as they are removing it. Oil-filled absorbentsand protective clothing that are used by responsepersonnel must be properly disposed of following cleanup,which can be costly. In addition, the intrusion of manypeople onto an isolated shoreline may disrupt animalbehaviors such as breeding or nesting.19
Pressure WashingPressure washing involves rinsing oiled shorelines androcks using hoses that supply low- or high-pressure waterstreams. Hot or cold water can be used to create thesestreams. The oil is flushed from the shoreline into plasticlined trenches, then collected with sorbent materials anddisposed of properly. Since many river banks, and somelakes, have vegetation extending down into or growing inthe water, plants may have to be cleaned or removed.Depending on the type of oil, low-pressure washing willusually remove most of the oil from the vegetation. In amarine ecosystem, high-pressure washing usually doesmore harm than good by driving the oil deeper into thebeach and by killing many of the organisms on the beach.Additionally, high-pressure water streams can acceleratebank erosion and dislodge organisms, such as algae andmussels, from the rocks and sediments on which they live,or can force oil deeper into sediments, making cleanupmore difficult.Pressure washing has the advantage of being relativelyinexpensive and simple to apply; however, it requiresmany people.Raking or BulldozingWhen oil moves downward into the sands or betweenpebbles and cobbles on a shoreline, it becomes moredifficult to remove. If the oil has moved downward only ashort distance, tilling or raking the sand can increaseevaporation of the oil by increasing its exposure to air andsunlight. If the oil has penetrated several inches into thesand, bulldozers may be brought in to remove the upperlayers of sand and pebbles. This allows the oil to beexposed so it can be collected and removed from the site,washed with pressure hoses, or left to degrade naturally.Raking and bulldozing are simple methods for helping toremove oil that might otherwise escape into sediments.However, these methods can disturb both the naturalshape of the shoreline and the plant and animal speciesthat live on and in the sediments. In addition, the use ofResponse crews using high pressure hoseto wash an oil covered beach.20bulldozers requires specially trained operators who canmaneuver them without damaging the shorelineunnecessarily; raking and tilling are time-consuming andrequire many people.DISPOSAL OF OIL AND DEBRISCLEANUP FROM an oil spill is not considered completeuntil all waste materials are disposed of properly. Thecleanup of an oiled shoreline can create different types ofwaste materials, including liquid oil, oil mixed with sand,and tar balls. Oil can sometimes be recovered and reused,disposed of by incineration, or placed in a landfill. States andthe federal government strictly regulate the disposal of oil.Reuse or recovery of oil requires that the oil be processedand separated from the other materials, such as water, thatare mixed in with it. The recovered oil can then be blendedwith other fuels for use in power plants or boilers.Incineration uses extremely high temperatures to convertcompounds, such as oil, into carbon dioxide and water.When a mobile incinerator is used at a remote spill site, theneed for transporting large volumes of oiled wastes todistant disposal sites is eliminated. This can be a practicaland efficient method to manage large volumes of wastegenerated during a cleanup. Because incineration canpotentially produce air pollution, it is important that it beused in strict compliance with air pollution laws.Landfilling is another method of disposing of oiled debris.The oil is mixed with chemicals, such as calcium oxide(“quicklime”), that stabilize the oil and make it less able toleak into groundwater or soils. Mixtures of quicklime andoil must sometimes be taken to specially designed landfillsfor disposal.SUMMARYCLEANING shorelines after an oil spill is a challengingtask. Factors that affect the type of cleanup method usedinclude the type of oil spilled, the geology of the shorelineand rate of water flow, and the type and sensitivity ofbiological communities in the area. Natural processes, suchas evaporation, oxidation, and biodegradation, help toclean the shoreline. Physical methods, such as wiping withsorbent materials, pressure washing, and raking andbulldozing, can be used to assist these natural processes.Oil collected during cleanup activities must be reused ordisposed of properly, using such methods as incinerationor landfilling. Choosing the most effective yet potentiallyleast damaging cleaning methods helps to ensure that thenatural systems of shorelines and the recreational benefitsthey offer will be preserved and protected for futuregenerations. Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
FACTORS AFFECTING CLEANUP DECISIONS FREQUENTLY, oil spills will start on land and r each shore areas. Whenever possible, control and cleanup of an oil spill begins immediately. If the oil spill can be controlled, it is less likely that it will reach sensitive freshwater or marine habitats. If the oil does r each the shore, however,
cleanup premium 20.1 license key, avast cleanup review, avast cleanup pro, avast cleanup apk, avast cleanup mac, avast cleanup premium review Light Software For Mac Avast Cleanup activation code is the best software a user can use to clean files that are junks on
Part One: Heir of Ash Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 .
TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD. Contents Dedication Epigraph Part One Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Part Two Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18. Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26
DEDICATION PART ONE Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 PART TWO Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 .
GRADe 3 UNIT 1 OVeRVIeW Shoreline Habitats Introduction Shoreline habitats are unique areas greatly infl uenced by tidal patterns, neighboring estuaries and wetlands, and human uses. Each shoreline habitat supports a great diversity of life. . Note to teachers: In the scientifi c world, the term "Coastal Ecosystems" is more widely used .
This handbook is a result of a growing interest to manage the process of shoreline erosion to prevent loss of property and structures in the Lake Champlain . The material that makes up a shore-line and its degree of exposure help determine whether wind, waves, and precipitation will affect the shoreline property. Shoreline materials are
The shoreline environment recovers naturally from an oil spill over time in all but a few rare cases. The objective of shoreline treatment is to accelerate the recovery process by enhancing the natural physical removal of oil from the shoreline (see Section 1), and therefore reduce the time and extent of environmental, economic, and other impacts.
America’s Problem-Solving Courts: The Criminal Costs of Treatment and the Case for Reform CYNTHIA HUJAR ORR President, NACDL San Antonio, TX JOHN WESLEY HALL Immediate Past President, NACDL Little Rock, AR NORMAN L. R EIMER Executive Director, NACDL Washington, DC EDWARD A. M ALLETT President, FCJ Houston, TX KYLE O’D OWD Associate Executive Director For Policy, NACDL Washington, DC .
