Ecosystem Restoration In Louisiana — A Decade After The .
Ecosystem restoration in Louisiana —a decade after the Deep Water Horizon oil spillBySyed M. Khalil, Gregory M. Grandy, and Richard C. RaynieLouisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority, 150 Terrace Avenue, Baton Rouge, LA, 70802Corresponding author: Syed.Khalil@LA.GOVABSTRACTLouisiana has a long history of coastal management and restoration actions with multiple projects implementing commonapproaches. Traditionally, most of the restoration efforts havebeen ongoing in Louisiana by state and federal agencies throughthe Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act(CWPPRA). These activities are now being expanded significantly through additional funding and implementing entitiessuch as the Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability, TouristOpportunities, and Revived Economies of the Gulf CoastStates (RESTORE) Act of 2012 Council, National Resource andDamage Assessment (NRDA) through the Louisiana TrusteeImplementation Group (LA TIG), and the National Fish andWildlife Foundation (NFWF). Considering a broader ecosystemor landscape context for implemented restoration projects canprovide a framework for emphasizing commonality of restoration goals. Such a framework allows for multiple benefits ofrestoration efforts to be quantified, including prioritized naturalresources, ultimately assessing the effectiveness of large-scalerestoration efforts in coastal Louisiana. Three disasters havecompletely changed the trajectory of Louisiana’s coastal restoINTRODUCTIONHistorical perspective of land lossin Louisiana — ecocatastropheTo refer to the ecosystem degradation in Louisiana caused byunprecedented land loss as an“ecocatastrophe” would not be an overstatement. Since the coast of Louisianais not a uniform single geomorphicentity, the magnitude of degradation isnot the same. It is a geologically diversesystem and could be broadly divided intothree major physiographic provinces viz.Mississippi River Delta Plain (MRDP),Marginal Delta Plain, and Chenier Plain(Figure 1). Like most of the deltaic plainsof the world the MRDP, a partially submerged landform that makes up Louisiana’s southeastern coastal region, is anexample of a rapidly deteriorating majordelta plain made increasingly unstablethrough sediment deficits, historicalengineering infrastructure, and climatechange. With subsidence and erosionrates unparalleled anywhere else in NorthAmerica, the MRDP is facing large-scalePage 38ration and protection program. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita(2005) compelled the state to take serious note of the vagariesof nature, especially high-energy events like hurricanes, and todevelop a comprehensive/robust coastal protection and restoration plan. Five years later, the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oilspill exposed the fragility of the Louisiana coast but at the sametime penalty monies provided much needed funding to implement the state’s coastal protection and restoration plans. Thispaper provides a high-level assessment of project implementation and makes the case that Louisiana could move quickly inthe implementation of various restoration plans because robustand comprehensive restoration plans were previously developedand are available. Here, it must be appreciated that for the firsttime, dedicated funding is available not only for regional programmatic monitoring to implement adaptive management, butalso for development of the art and science of restoration. It isalso suggested that for efficient and cost effective implementation of Louisiana’s Coastal Master Plan federal agencies mustwork in tandem with the state/CPRA who not only bring themost comprehensive plan but expertise along with institutionalknowledge to the table.KEYWORDS: Coastal restoration,Deepwater Horizon, adaptive management, coastal management.Manuscript submitted 3 October 2019;revised & accepted: 10 January 2020.environmental perturbations and physical changes resulting from the combinedeffect of natural and anthropogenic factors. Louisiana’s coastal problems are notrestricted to the MRDP, but also extendacross the Marginal Delta Plain to theChenier Plain in the southwestern part ofthe state. Despite efforts to reverse landlosses in the late 20th century, Louisianacontinues to lose wetlands at a rate of approximately 28 square kilometers per year(Couvillion et al. 2017). This high rate ofland loss threatens coastal communities,industries and associated infrastructure,and a range of key local and nationalphysical, economic, ecological and cultural assets (Khalil et al. 2011). CoastalLouisiana is vital not only to the state butthe nation’s economic health and annuallysends more than 120 billion in goods tothe rest of the United States and exports 36.2 billion internationally (CPRA2017). Before human intervention,Louisiana’s expansive and ecologically/biologically rich coastal landscape wassculpted over the preceding 6,000-7,000years by avulsions of the Mississippi Riveras it shifted its course east and west, forming active and abandoned deltas throughcyclic repetitions of active sedimentationfollowed by subsidence and coastal retreat(Roberts 1997). Sea level rise and subsidence were historically offset by the Mississippi River’s land building processes inthe MRDP, and mud stream accretion inthe Chenier Plain (Stone et al. 2005; Penland et al. 2000). Geological studies haveshown that since the early 20th century therate of land loss has accelerated due to thecombined effects of natural causes andmultiple human interventions along theLouisiana coastal plain and throughoutthe Mississippi River watershed (Boeschet al. 1994; Gagliano et al. 1981). Coastalscientists and experts consider the Mississippi River Flood Control and NavigationSystem and the extensive matrix of oil andShore & Beach Vol. 88, No. 1 Winter 2020
gas pipeline and navigation canals to beamong the major anthropogenic interventions causing land loss in Louisiana(Boesch et al. 1994; Turner 1997; Penlandet al. 2000). During a short span of 7080 years, the state’s coast has lost almostone quarter (25%) of the land built over6,000-7,000 years of geological history.One of the main reasons is that currentlythe sediment load of Mississippi River hasbeen reduced by large-scale human activities to approximately 145 MMT fromhistorically 400 MMT per year (Blum andRoberts 2009; Meade and Moody 2010).The fragility of this system was palpable first during Hurricanes Katrina andRita in 2005, and then during the DWHoil spill five years later in 2010. Thesethree extraordinary disasters — two natural and the third anthropogenic — werewake-up calls. In 2007, in response tothe hurricane events, Louisiana’s CoastalProtection and Restoration Authority(CPRA) produced the first EcosystemRestoration and Hurricane ProtectionPlan (Louisiana’s Comprehensive MasterPlan for a Sustainable Coast) pursuant toAct 8, analyzing and synthesizing decadesof thinking about coastal projects andtechnical designs from previous plans,and emphasizing coordinated storm riskreduction and coastal restoration planning (Killebrew and Khalil 2018). Itsfocus was to achieve a sustainable coastallandscape using structural and nonstructural approaches as a prerequisite for bothstorm protection and ecological restoration (CPRA 2007). Lessons from the 2005hurricanes provided the impetus to consolidate the various plans contemplatedfor decades and the subsequent 2010 oilspill provided the financial resources tofulfill these plans.Concept of sustainableecosystem restorationBuilding, maintenance, and dissolution of the coastal landscape is primarilya mass-balance between sediment inputand accommodation space created due tovarious natural and anthropogenic causes(Khalil et al. 2018). Plans and projects torestore coastal Louisiana have existed insome form or fashion at least since 1927,and both state and federal governmentshave expended considerable time andfunds in plan development (Killebrewand Khalil 2018). These efforts, while laying the foundation for future actions, alsosuggested the need for a single, overarching strategic approach to guide the statein addressing a highly complex scientificand social problem that requires a sharedvision. Of late, in order to mitigate rapiddegradation of coastal Louisiana in general, and the MRDP in particular, there havebeen sustained efforts to plan and implement coastal restoration projects (CPRA2007, 2012, 2017; Louisiana CoastalWetlands Conservation and RestorationTask Force 1998). Land building is one ofthe two main objectives of 2017 CoastalMaster Plan (CMP) (CPRA 2017). Landbuilding helps recreate and/or replace thedegraded or lost geomorphic forms fromthe coastal Louisiana landscape. Sedimentological restoration helps replicate/create the geomorphic forms that serveas a foundation for ecological restorationwhich in turn helps restore the ecologicalfunctions (Killebrew and Khalil 2018).It is important to emphasize that a balanced approach to sedimentological andecological restoration completes the loopfor sustainable ecosystem restoration ofcoastal Louisiana.History of restorationstrategies in LouisianaLouisiana coastal restoration plansand programs, in their various manifestations, have been in existence for severaldecades. The state has worked with local and federal entities to implement alarge number of ecosystem restorationprojects to sustain and restore coastalLouisiana. These projects were conceivedand implemented to address a wide variety of perceived issues such as saltwaterintrusion, shoreline erosion, tidal scour,and sediment starvation. In addition,enactments of state and federal legislations over the years have resulted in thedevelopment of numerous programs andplans as consequences of several studies(Killebrew and Khalil 2018). Thoughnever articulated, there appears to beunanimous consensus about some ofthe most effective mitigative strategiesviz. river diversions, barrier island restoration, marsh platform creation, andshoreline protection.Since 2007, state-legislated CMPs evaluate projects through a set of linked predictive models and risk assessment (CPRA2012, 2017). Among the constraintsconsidered are other funding sources,sediment, and river uses. The 2017 updateto the CMP acknowledges that efficientuse of funding and sediment resources isrequired. The state’s 2012 CMP envisagednine different strategies to be adopted toShore & Beach Vol. 88, No. 1 Winter 2020restore coastal Louisiana via a portfolio of109 projects (CPRA 2012). Three restoration strategies that dominated the 2012and 2017 CMP (river diversions, barrierisland restoration, and marsh platformcreation) are directly related to land building and are indicative of the importanceof sedimentological restoration creatinggeomorphic forms (Khalil et al. 2018).The intent is to strategically restore critical landforms that have been lost and tore-establish land-sustaining processesto achieve a no net loss scenario in thefuture. As stated earlier, the 2017 CMPcarries forward on the same trajectory bylaying equal emphasis on land building viariver diversions as well as marsh platformcreation and maintaining robust barrierislands as the first line of defense. Its success critically depends upon an aggressiveschedule of implementation. Several newfunding sources for coastal restoration(mentioned above) in Louisiana have reduced the budgetary constraints faced bylarge, ecosystem scale projects and haveprovided an impetus to expedite projectdevelopment and construction.DWH OIL SPILL EVENT/DISASTER1On 20 April 2010, approximately 3.19million barrels (134 million gallons) of oilwere released into the ocean (U.S. v. BP etal. 2015) from BP’s Macondo well due tothe explosion of the Deepwater Horizondrilling unit. This is by far the largestoffshore oil spill in U.S. history with thetotal volume of oil released about 12 timesmore than the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill.For 87 days after the explosion, oil andnatural gas continuously and uncontrollably flowed into the northern Gulf ofMexico. Oil moved with deep-sea currents, creating a plume of oil within thedeep sea. Oil and associated “marine oilsnow” also settled on the sea floor. Morebuoyant oil traveled up through about 1.6kilometers of water column and formedlarge surface slicks. At the slick’s maximum extent on 19 June 2010, oil coveredmore than 40,000 square kilometers of theocean. Cumulatively, over the course ofthe spill, oil was detected on over 112,100square kilometers of the ocean. Currents,winds, and tides carried these surfaceoil slicks to the Northern Gulf states,polluting more than 2,100 kilometers ofshoreline, including beaches, bays, estuaries, and marshes from eastern Texas1) For details on DWH Funding, please see thepaper entitled “A short history of funding and accomplishments post-Deepwater Horizon” by AlyssaDausman and Jessica Henkel in this dedicated issue.Page 39
Table 1.tion in all five Gulf states. Together thesefunding streams total approximately 7.1billion projected out for the next 15 years(Killebrew and Khalil 2018).Table showing dollar amount of various funding sources.Total restoration funds to the State of Louisiana 7.1 billionLouisiana NRD allocationsDollar amountLouisiana total 5 billionEarly Restoration Phases I-IV 368 millionApproximate balance remaining 4.6 billionClean Water Act AllocationLouisiana Total (RESTORE 1, 3, and Centers of Excellence) 787 millionCenters of Excellence 22 millionBucket 1 — Direct component 308 million30% coastal parishes 92 million70% state 216 millionBucket 3 — Spill impact component 457 millionto the Florida Panhandle. In addition,some lighter oil compounds evaporatedfrom the slicks, exposing air-breathingorganisms like marine mammals and seaturtles to noxious fumes at the sea surface.As a result of the spill, consequenceswere measured from the deepwater drilling site through the nearshore oceanicenvironment, along the Gulf shorelineand into the sensitive estuaries of the Gulfstates. Offshore impacts resulted fromthe release of oil and natural gas itself,dispersants, drilling mud, and in situburning. As the oil reached the shoreline,consequences resulted not only fromexposure to oil, but also from responseactivities viz. skimming, freshwaterreleases, shoreline protection activities,boom placement, construction of bermsand wildlife rehabilitation and relocation.Through the Emergency Sand BermProject, 6.2 million cubic yards of sandwere placed on 15.7 miles of Chandeleur,Scofield, Pelican, and East Shell Islands(CPE 2013) to prevent oil from reachingsensitive marshes and the only significantcommunity of submerged aquatic vegetation in coastal Louisiana (LaRoe et al.1995). This sand was mined from “outsidethe system,” from either Mississippi Rivermaintenance dredging spoil deposits orfrom Hewes Point. On the positive side,these berms added a significant amountof sand to the barrier island system.DETAILS OF VARIOUSFUNDING SOURCESHistory of funding in LouisianaTraditionally, restoration and protection efforts are funded from multiple revenue streams that have significant compliance requirements. Funding sourcesinclude constitutionally dedicated statemineral revenues derived from oil and gasPage 40royalties, bonuses, and severance taxesthat are used primarily as a state matchfor CWPPRA funded projects. This is theonly recurring state revenue in the coastalprogram. The amount varies each yearand fiscal year 2020-2021 projections areat about 25 million. The CWPPRA Program provides 75 million to 80 millionper year through the current authorization. USFWS’s Coastal Impact AssistanceProgram (CIAP) in Louisiana contained99 projects funded with state and/or parish CIAP funding totaling approximately 496 million. The Gulf of Mexico EnergySecurity Act (GOMESA) established arevenue sharing arrangement for OCSoil and gas revenues for the Gulf Coastproducing states. Estimates for Louisiana(Fiscal Year 2021) are approximately 88million with 80% ( 70 million) of theLouisiana share allocated to CPRA.New funding streams have largelybeen associated with the DWH oil spillof 2010 stemming from violations ofthe Oil Pollution Act, Clean Water Act,and injuries to natural resources andhave included projects funded throughthe Berm-to-Barrier, Natural ResourceDamage Assessment (NRDA), Resourcesand Ecosystems Sustainability, TouristOpportunities, and Revived Economiesof the Gulf Coast States Act (RESTOREAct), and the Gulf Environmental BenefitFund administered by the National Fishand Wildlife Federation (NFWF). TheNFWF grants (approximately 1.272 billion) resulting from criminal settlementsare restricted to barrier island and riverdiversion projects in Louisiana. The RESTORE Act directs 80% of the Clean Water Act penalties into five different funding streams directed at restoring coastaland Gulf ecosystems and is an additionalsource of revenue for ecosystem restora-To date, about 510 million paid byBP and its partners has already been usedto complete restoration work on sevenmajor projects. Another 6.8 billion willbe used on several other projects through2032, the deadline for BP to pay moneyowed under various court settlementagreements. Louisiana’s share of NRDApayments required under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, totaling at least 5billion, was agreed to by BP as part of aglobal settlement with federal, state andparish governments. More than 787 million in Clean Water Act civil fines havealso been directed to Louisiana underthe federal RESTORE Act. Much of thatmoney is being paid to the state in increments over 15 years ending in 2032. Thestate was also provided 360 million directly by BP in the weeks after the spill in2010 to build sand berms along existingbarrier islands along the coast to interceptoil before it moved beyond the islandsinto the more fragile wetlands. When thewell was capped, BP agreed to allow thestate to use more than 120 million of theremaining berm money for barrier islandrestoration (Table 1 and Table 2).Restoration plans and programsIt has been mentioned that, althoughLouisiana has had a coastal wetland ecosystem restoration program for severaldecades, the first integrated hurricaneprotection and ecosystem restoration“Coastal Master Plan” (CPRA 2007),was produced in 2007 following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (Khalil andRaynie 2015a). This was followed by the2012 Coastal Master Plan that includeda detailed prediction of the future of theLouisiana coast without action, and anobjective evaluation of the performanceof hundreds of previously proposed projects over the next 50 years (CPRA 2012).Subsequently the 2017 Coastal MasterPlan proposes to build and maintain over2,000 square kilometers of coastal land inthe next 50 years (CPRA 2017). It is alsomentioned that barrier island restoration,marsh platform creation, and sedimentdiversions, are most-emphasized restoration strategies by both 2012 and 2017Coastal Master Plans and are directlyrelated to land building (Killebrew andKhalil 2018). The intent is to restore/createcritical landforms/geomorphic forms (viz.Shore & Beach Vol. 88, No. 1 Winter 2020
Table 2.Table showing status of various active Deep Water Horizon projects.Barrier island restoration projectsBA-0040Riverine Sand Mining/Scofield Island RestorationBA-0076Cheniere Ronquille Barrier Island RestorationBA-0110Shell Island East — BermBA-0111Shell Island West — NRDABA-0143Caminada Headland Beach and Dune Restoration Incr2BA-0197West Grand Terre Beach Nourishment and StabilizationBA-0202Queen Bess Island RestorationBS-0029North Breton IslandCS-0080Rabbit Island RestorationTE-0100NRDA Caillou Lake HeadlandsTE-0143Terrebonne Basin Barrier Island and Beach RDANRDANFWFStatus sh platform creation, marsh nourishment and ridge restoration projectsBA-0042Lake Hermitage Marsh CreationBA-0141NRDA Lake Hermitage Marsh Creation IncrementBA-0203Barataria Basin Ridg
Oct 03, 2019 · (Khalil et al. 2018). Plans and projects to restore coastal Louisiana have existed in some form or fashion at least since 1927, and both state and federal governments have expended considerable time and funds in plan development (Killebrew and Khalil 2018). These effor
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Image restoration techniques are used to make the corrupted image as similar as that of the original image. Figure.3 shows classification of restoration techniques. Basically, restoration techniques are classified into blind restoration techniques and non-blind restoration techniques [15]. Non-blind restoration techniques
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Image restoration techniques are used to make the degraded or corrupted image as similar as that of the original image. Fig. 1 shows classification of restoration techniques. Basically, restoration techniques are classified into blind restoration techniques and non-blind restoration technique. Non-blind restoration techniques are further
