Research Article Diversity, Phenology And Variation Of .
Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219, April - 2017 RUT Printer and PublisherPrint & Online, Open Access, Research Journal Available on http://jbsd.inISSN: 2229-3469 (Print); ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)Research ArticleDiversity, Phenology and Variation of Seasonal LeafPhotosynthetic Pigments in Mangroves of Chilika lagoon(Odisha), IndiaPanda M1’3 , Lele N2, Samal RN1, Murthy TVR2, Patnaik AK4 and Nanda S11Chilika Development Authority, Govt. of Odisha, IndiaSpace Application Center (SAC/ISRO), Ahmadabad, Govt. of India3Post Graduate Department of Botany, Utkal University, Odisha4Principal Chief Conservator of Forest (PD OFSDP), Govt. of Odisha, India.*muktipada.panda@gmail.com2Article InfoReceived: 15-03-2017,Revised: 29-03-2017,Accepted: 30-03-2017Keywords:Chilika, Mangrove,Diversity, Seasonal,Photosynthetic Pigment.AbstractChilika is the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia and first Ramsar wetland ofOdisha, India. The present study is the first report which includes mangrovediversity, their phenology and estimation of seasonal (i.e., summer, postmonsoon and winter, 2015) variations in leaf photosynthetic pigments of 7 truemangroves viz. Avicennia alba Blume, Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.,Avicennia officinalis L., Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou, Kandelia candel(L.) Druce, Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. and Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham ofChilika lagoon. The diversity study recorded a total of 10 true mangroves and 8associate beach floras from the mangrove islands of Chilika lagoon. Theseasonal leaf pigment study showed highest amount of total chlorophyll duringwinter but carotenoides during summer which reflected the adaptation inmangroves to enhance the photo-protection properties of mangroves leaves.Comparison of seasonal variation in leaf photosynthetic pigments estimatedhighest amount of pigments in S. apetala Buch-Ham and lowest from C.decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou than other studied mangrove species. Chlorophylla/b ratio was typically about 3.0 during post-monsoon but varied significantlyduring other seasons. The field investigation showed the presence of large openspace between the plants. Proper management, artificial regeneration, gap fillingwith suitable mangrove species and prevention in entry of buffaloes into theseislands will help to increase the health of the mangroves which thought tostabilize and improve the ecology of Chilika lagoon.INTRODUCTIONIn green plants, photosynthesis takes place in thechlorophyll containing thylakoid membrane of thechloroplasts. Chlorophylls a, b and Carotenoids(carotenes & xanthophylls) are found in allphotosynthetic organisms (Young, 1993; Hopkins &Huner, 2009). Chlorophyll a is the primaryphotosynthetic pigment which captures light withhttp://biosciencediscovery.comnarrow and specific visible range of Sun light.Chlorophyll b and carotenoides act as supportiveaccessory photosynthetic pigments and they acceptlight from wide range (Bidlack & Jansky, 2011). Inplants and algae, carotenoids act fundamental rolesas protector against photo-damage and contributionin photosynthesis activities. The yellowing of leavesduring senescenceisusually interpreted211ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)
Panda M et al.,as being the result of rapid degradation ofchlorophylls to expose the carotenoid pigments,which appear to be less susceptible to damage(Young, 1993). Mangroves are diverse group oftrees and shrubs that flourish in soil of more or lesspermanently waterlogged, and in water whosesalinity fluctuates and, with evaporation, may beeven higher than that of the open sea (Hogarth,2015). Leaf phenology of mangroves is animportant aspect for study of production andutilization of organic material. Tomlinson (1986)explained about the evergreen nature of mangroveswhich is part of their survival kit in stressedenvironments. The photosynthetic process of theplant is dependent upon chlorophylls as antennamolecules (Sathe et al., 2015). The photosyntheticprocess may be affected at high saline condition dueto decrease in chlorophyll a and b concentrations inmangroves (Mitra et al., 2014). Both intra- andinter-specific variation in chlorophyll content wereobserved in mangroves (Basak et al., 1996). Thespecies like Avicennia marina, Avicenniaofficinalis, Excoecaria agallocha, Suaeda monoica,Sonneratia apetala showed the highest content ofchlorophyll a and b (Murty & Rao, 2014).Mangrove chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, ingeneral, are high during the summer butanthocyanin levels are highest in the monsoonmonths (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Reductionof leaf chlorophyll was noticed by increasingsalinity (Panda et al., 2006).Leaf phenology of mangroves is an importantaspect for study of production and utilization oforganic material but still very few literatures areavailable (Saenger & Moverley, 1985; Tomlinson,1986; Duke, 1990; Farooqui & Siddiqui, 2014).Leaf emergence and leaf fall peaked in the wetmonths and was reduced in the dry months inRhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba(Wang’ondu et al., 2013). In Kandelia candel, thegrowth was highly seasonal and flower initiationwas maximum during June (Ha et al., 2003). Mostof the mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Odisha) initiateflowering in winter and summer (Upadhyay &Mishra, 2010). During summer canopy cover is less,whereas during winter and monsoon season there isclosed canopy at the tropical rain forest of WesternGhats (Rani and Paliwal, 2014). The present studyis the first attempt to study mangrove diversity,phenology and seasonal variation of leaf pigmentshttp://jbsd.inof mangroves found inside Chilika lagoon (Odisha),India.MATERIAL AND METHODSStudy siteThe present study was carried out at Chilika lagoon(Odisha), India which is situated between 19º 28’19º 54’ N latitude and 85º 05’-85 º38’ E longitudes(Naik et al., 2008). The studied mangroves arepresent at 4 small islands inside the lagoon. The siteis very close to the sea mouth from where salinewater of Bay of Bengal enters into the lagoon.Mangrove Diversity and PhenologyGPS added field visits at two months intervals fromNovember-2014 to April-2016 were carried out toestimate the diversity of mangrove and associatedflora and growth phenology study. Photographswere taken using the camera Sony 58 Y, DSLR.Leaf Photosynthetic PigmentA total of 7 mangrove species were chosen forseasonal (Summer: April, Post-monsoon: Novemberand Winter: December, 2015) variation of leafphotosynthetic pigments. The selected mangrovespecies were Avicennia alba Blume, Avicenniamarina (Forsk.) Vierh., Avicennia officinalis L.,Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou, Kandeliacandel (L.) Druce, Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.and Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham (Plate 1). Freshleaves were collected, washed and shocked withtissue paper. The leaves were cut into small pieces,discarding the veins and any tough, fibrous tissue.The cut pieces were weighed to about 100mg andimmediately fixed using 80% acetone (acetone:water, 80:20 v: v) in a 25ml centrifuge tube fordark incubation for 48 hours in ice. The absorbance(A) was measured at 470nm, 645nm, and 663nmrespectively in a double beam UV-VISSpectrophotometer and Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyllb, total Chlorophyll, and Carotenoides content ofmangrove leaves were estimated using Arnon(1949).RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:Mangrove Diversity and Phenology10 true mangrove species & 8 associate beach florawere recorded from these islands (Table 1). Out ofthe 10 true mangroves, 9 species belongs to tree andone species belongs to herb. The associate florabelongs to 6 herbs, 1 tree and 1creeper. The presenttrue mangroves are of short heights and showground level branching due high hot, dry, sandy,high saline surrounding environment (Table 2).212ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print)
Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219, April - 2017The presence tufts of thick, low height and largenumber of Pneumatophores and stilt roots havebeen recorded from the species of family,Avicenniaceae and Rhizophoraceae, respectively(Plate 1) which is thought to be the way foradaptation towards high salinity (Panda et al., 2006)(Table 3 & Plate 1).Table 1: List of true mangroves and associate beach flora and their phenology, Chilika lagoon.(Note: TM-True mangrove, BF-Beach flora)Sr.No.Recorded PlantsFamilyAdaptation1Acanthus ilicifolius L.AcanthaceaeCable &Stilt roots, Salt glandTMHerb2Avicennia alba BlumeAvicenniaceaeKnee root & Pneumatophores,Salt glandTMTree3Avicennia marina (Forsk.)VeierhAvicenniaceaePneumatophores, Salt glandTMTree4Avicennia officinalis L.AvicenniaceaePneumatophores, Salt glandTMTree5Bruguiera cylindrical (L.)BlumeRhizophoraceaeButtress, Knee & Stilt rootsTMTree6Ceriops decandra (Griff.) DingHouRhizophoraceaeButtress, Knee & Stilt roots,SucculenceTMTree7Kandelia candel (L) DruceRhizophoraceaeStilt rootsTMTree8Rhizophora apiculata BlumeRhizophoraceaeProp & stilt roots, SucculenceTMTree9Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.RhizophoraceaeProp & stilt roots, SucculenceTMTree10Sonneratia apetala Buch. –Ham.SonneratiaceaePneumatophores, SucculenceTMTree11Heliotropium curassavicum L.BoraginaceaeSucculenceBFHerb12Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br.ConvolvulaceaeSucculenceBFCreeper13PoaceaeSalt glandsBFHerb14Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.)TakeokaPongamia pinnata (L.) rnia brachiata Roxb.SalvadoraceaeSucculenceBFHerb16Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.)AizoaceaeSucculenceBFHerb17Spinifex squarrosus L.PoaceaeNeedle leafBFHerb18Trianthema portulacastrum L.AizoaceaeSucculenceBFHerb19Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ExCorr.Malvaceae----------------------BFTreeThe phenology of true mangroves differssignificantly within families, genera and also amongspecies (Tomlinson, 1986; Coupland et al., 2005).The emergence of leaf bud, leaf maturation andsenescent of leaves, flowers were found to differamong the species (Table 3). The life span of thehttp://biosciencediscovery.comType offloraHabittrue mangrove leaves varied from 10-18 monthsamong different species, longest in Rhizophora spp.(Saenger and Moverley, 1985; Tomlinson, 1986)and least in Acanthus illicifolius L. and Sonneratiaapetala Buch.-Ham. (Table 3).213ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)
Panda M et al.,Table 2: Seasonal variation of physiochemical parameters soil and water samples of mangrove islandsof Chilika lagoon (Odisha), India.SI.No.Seasons 1Summer2PostmonsoonWinter3Soil textureSand 60% 45 52 ClaySilt 25% 35 30 15% 20 18 Soilmoisture%Watersalinity(ppt)Soilsalinity(ppt)32 325.4 1.28.1 0.6233958 614.6 2.54.2 1.5213640 421.2 1.58.5 1.21734In most cases the leaf color changes to yellow at thetime of senescent and more prominent inRhizophora spp. and Sonneratia spp. (Plate 1). Themangroves of Rhizophoraceae, and Avicenniaceaeshowed evergreen nature of vegetation cover. Thecomparison of flower initiation of true mangrovesDiurnaltemperature ( C)Min.Max.showed the families like Avicenniaceae andAcanthaceae start flowering at the end of winter andarrival of summer, Rhizophoraceae during start ofwinter but varies among species and the familySonneratiaceae during late winter (Table 3).Table 3: Phenological behavior of true mangroves of Chilika lagoon (Odisha), IndiaAcanthus ilicifolius L.JulyDurationfromemergenceof leaf toabscission(Month)10Avicennia alba BlumeJuly12-13JanuaryJuneAvicennia marina (Forsk.)VeierhAvicennia officinalis L.July13-14JanuaryMayJuly13-14JanuaryMayBruguiera cylindrical (L.)BlumeCeriops decandra (Griff.)Ding HouKandelia candel (L) phora apiculataBlumeRhizophora mucronataLamk.Sonneratia apetala Buch.– ove specieshttp://jbsd.inStart of droppingPlantheight(meter)Start ofbranchingfromground(cm)MarchJune1.48 0.193.50 0.393.88 0.503.48 0.481.47 0.211.44 0.212.24 0.173.4 0.353.5 0.274.03 0.44---------------72 1376 2724 1143 622 867 26126 35116 1533 16ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print)
Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219, April - 2017Fig. 1: Season wise flower initiation among the recorded floraThere was no significant correlation between theleaf initiation and leaf aging in Rhizophoraceae.Most species show flowering during dry hotenvironment (Duke, 1990; Coupland et al., 2005;Upadhyay & Mishra, 2010; Panda et al., 2017)(Figure 1).Leaf pigmentsThe leaf photosynthetic pigments like Cholorphylls(i.e., Chl.a and Chl.b), total Chlorophyll,Carotenoides and the ratio of Chl.a/b has beencalculated for all the three seasons of the selected 7mangrove species of Chilika lagoon (Table 4).The amount of total chlorophyll, chlorophyll a &chlorophyll b varied among species (Murty & Rao,2014). The mangrove species like, A. marina(Forsk.) Veierh, A. officinalis L., C. decandra(Griff.) Ding Hou, K. candel (L) Druce and R.mucronata Lamk., showed highest chlorophyllcontent during summer. But two species, A. albaBlume and S. apetala Buch.-Ham., showed highestchlorophyll content during winter. Seasonalcomparison of total chlorophyll among speciesshowed maximum from S. apetala Buch.-Ham. (i.e.,1.45 mg/g) during winter but a similar amount ofchlorophyll content was recorded during bothsummer and post monsoon. Similarly, the seasonalestimated result among the studied mangrove leavesshowed minimum amount of chlorophyll in C.decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou (i.e., 0.20 mg/g) duringpost-monsoon. Three species, A. alba Blume, A.marina (Forsk.) Veierh and A. officinalis L. showedlowest chlorophyll content during post monsoon.Two species, K. candel (L) Druce and R. mucronataLamk., showed lowest chlorophyll during winter(Table 4).The chlorophyll a/b ratio among species varied butclose to 3.0 (Basak et al., 1996) in post-monsoonbut varied significantly during winter and summer(Fig. 3). A very high value recorded during winterand thus shows use of a narrow range of irradiancefor photosynthesis during winter but in summer,low ratio showed use of broad range irradiance andalso an adaptation towards unfavorable conditions.In stress condition chlorophyll a is more susceptiblefor degradation than chlorophyll b which results in areduction in Chlorophyll a/b ratio (Young, 1993).Figure 2: Seasonal variation of Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b in mangrove leaves(Note: AA: Avicennia alba AM: Avicennia marina AO: Avicennia officinalis, CD: Ceriops decandra KC:Kandelia candel RM: Rhizophora mucronata SA: Sonneratia apetala)http://biosciencediscovery.com215ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)
Panda M et al.,Table 4: Mangrove leaf pigment content during summer, post-monsoon and winter, /jbsd.inChl. a S.D0.438 0.0040.549 0.0030.801 0.0060.449 0.0030.542 0.0060.413 0.0050.837 0.007Chl. a S.D0.335 0.0040.332 0.0040.176 0.0030.155 0.0010.432 0.0010.238 0.0030.896 0.006Chl. a S.D0.605 0.0040.551 0.0040.460 0.0050.238 0.0010.194 0.0020.221 0.0041.077 0.008A: Summer (April) - 2015Chl. b S.D Total Chl. Carotenoides S.DS.D0.207 0.645 0.007 1.954 0.0020.0020.221 0.77 0.004 2.308 0.0050.0020.402 1.203 3.192 0.0020.0030.0070.267 0.716 1.955 0.0030.0050.0060.153 0.695 2.202 0.0010.0040.0080.119 0.532 1.471 0.0030.0040.0110.392 1.229 2.863 00030.0030.009B: Post-monsoon (September) - 2015Chl. b S.D Total Chl. Carotenoides S.DS.D0.121 0.456 0.117 0.0010.0030.0060.119 0.451 0.145 0.0080.0020.0050.036 0.212 0.084 0.0020.0010.0040.046 0.201 0.092 0.0010.0020.0030.128 0.561 0.183 0.0010.0030.0030.070 0.308 0.126 0.0010.0010.0040.345 1.231 0.308 0.0010.0030.006C: Winter (December) - 2015Chl. b S.D Total Chl. Carotenoides S.DS.D0.139 0.781 0.006 0.141 0.0010.0020.124 0.708 0.006 0.129 0.0010.0020.084 0.569 0.008 0.137 0.0010.0020.068 0.321 0.001 0.100 0.0010.0010.050 0.256 0.004 0.100 0.0010.0010.051 0.285 0.013 0.103 0.0020.0080.307 1.454 0.012 0.351 0.0030.003216Chl. a/b2.116Totalchl./Carotenoides0.330 0.0122.4840.334 0.0241.9930.377 0.0061.6820.336 0.0123.5420.316 0.0463.4710.362 0.0062.1350.429 0.096Chl. a/b2.779Totalchl./Carotenoides3.895 0.0282.7823.125 0.1994.8892.514 0.0093.3772.188 0.0053.3693.071 0.0053.3952.435 0.022.5953.991 0.028Chl. a/b4.342Totalchl./Carotenoides5.554 0.0094.4305.487 0.015.4844.160 0.0263.5253.218 0.0143.8622.564 0.0054.3002.781 0.0723.5114.139 0.006ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print)
Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219, April - 2017The comparison of chlorophyll a/b ratio among thespecies showed highest for A. officinalis L. (i.e.,5.48, during winter) and minimum for C. decandra(Griff.) Ding Hou (i.e., 1.68, during summer). Thevalues of all other species were found to be betweenthese two mangrove species (Table 4 & Fig. 3).Figure 3: Seasonal variation of Chlorophyll a/b of mangrove leaves.The carotenoid content of mangrove leaves duringpost monsoon and winter was of similar and noremarkable differences were noticed. The minimumamount of carotenoides was recorded in leaves of A.officinalis L. (i.e., 0.08mg/g) during post-monsoonin comparison with other species. A significant risein leaf carotenoides in all the mangrove leaves wererecorded during summer (Table 4 & Fig. 4).Figure 4: Seasonal variation of carotenoides of mangrove leaves.The increase chlorophyll b and carotenoides duringsummer (Table 4; Fig. 2 & Fig. 4) shows their roleto use wide range of irradiance and to protect thephotosynthetic apparatus (i.e., reaction centers) byreflecting high energetic lights (Kathiresan &Bingham, 2001; Bidlack & Jansky, 2011).The correlation coefficient values showed strongrelation among different photosynthetic pigmentsduring post-monsoon and winter but least duringsummer period (Table 5). The pigment contentamong the species also varied which supported thework of Basak et al., (1996).Table 5: Correlation coefficient values between leaf pigments of three different seasonsSI No.1234SourceChl. a vs. Chl. bChl. a vs. CarotenoidesChl. b vs. CarotenoidesTotal Chl. vs. 982Winter0.9780.9300.9700.943ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)
Panda M et al.,1234567891011121314Plate 1: Showing plants selected for seasonal pigment estimation, phenologyand adaptationmodification of mangroves in islands of Chilika lagoon, Odisha, India.Note: 1-7; Plants selected for Photosynthetic pigment study, 1: Avicennia alba 2: Avicennia marina 3:Avicennia officinalis 4: Kandelia candel 5: Rhizophora mucronata 6: Sonneratia apetala 7: Ceriopsdecandra 8: Acetone extraction 9: Stunted growth of Avicennia patch 10-12: Senescent leaves (Avicenniaalba, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, respectively) 13: Stilt roots of Rizophora spp.14:Pneumatophores of Avicennia marina.From above study it may suggested that thephenology and greenery in mangrove leaves variesthroughout the year. Proper management, artificialregeneration, gap filling with suitable mangrovespecies and prevention in entry of buffaloes into theislands will help to increase the health of themangroves which is thought to stabilize andimprove the ecology of Chilika lagoon.REFFERENCESArnon DI, 1949. Copper enzymes in isolatedchloroplasts. Polyphenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris.Plant Physiol., 24: 1-5.http://jbsd.inBasak UC, Das AB and Das P, 1996.Chlorophylls, Carotenoides, Proteins and SecondaryMetabolites in Leaves of 14 species of Mangrove.Bulletin of Marine Science, 58(3): 654-659.Bidlack JE and Jansky SH, 2011. SternsIntroductory Plant Biology. McGraw-Hill, NewYork.Coupland GT, Paling EI and McGuinness KA,2005. Vegetative and reproductive phonologies offour mangrove species from northern Australia.Australian Journal of botany, 53: 109-1017.Duke NC, 1990. Phenological Trends with Latitudein the Mangrove tree Avicennia marina. Journal ofEcology, 78: 113-133.218ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print)
Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219, April - 2017Farooqui Z and Siddiqui PJ, 2014. Assessment ofVegetative Phenology with Respect to LeafElongation Patterns on Avicennia marina andRhizophora mucronata in Hajambro Creek, IndusDelta, Pakistan. J. Trop. Life. Science, 4(2): 142148.Ha HT, Duarte CM, Tri NH, Terrados J andBorum J, 2003. Growth and population dynamicsduring early stages of the mangrove Kandeliacandel in Halong Bay, North Viet Nam. Estuarine,Coastal and Shelf Science, 58: 435-445.Hogarth PJ, 2015. The biology of mangroves andSeagrasses. Oxford University Press, New York.Hopkins WG, and Huner NPA, 2009.Introduction to Plant Physiology. John Wiley.Kathiresan K and Bingham BL, 2001. Biology ofMangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Advances inMarine Biology, 40: 81-251.Mitra A, Zaman S, Pramanick P and BanerjeeK, 2014.Adaptive Efficiency of Avicennia marinaseedlings to climate change induced salinityfluctuation. International Science Journal, 1(1):127-132.Murty PP and Rao GMN, 2014. Determination ofChlorophyll a and b of some mangrove species ofVisakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Inter. J. ofPhytotherapy, 4(3):131-132.Naik PK, Pati GC, Choudhury A and Naik KC,2008. Conservation of Chilika Lake, Orissa, India.In Sengupta, M. & Dalwani, R. (Ed.), Procedings ofTall 2007: The 12th World Lake Conference: 19881992.Panda D, Dash PK, Dhal NK and Rout NC, ll Content in Mangrove species grown inDifferent Salinity. Gen. Appl. Plant Physiology, 32(3-4): 175-180.Panda M, Murthy TVR, Samal, RN, Lele N,Patnaik AK and Chand PK, 2017. Diversity ofTrue and Mangrove associates of BhitarkanikaNational Park (Odisha), India. Int. J. Adv. Res. 5(1):1784-1798.Rani JGJ and Paliwal K, 2014. Seasonal variationin biomass at the tropical rainforest of WesternGhats, Kodayar, Tamilnadu. Bioscience Discovery,5(1):28-31.Saenger P and Moverley J, 1985. Vegitativephenology of mangroves along the Queenslandcoastline. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust., 13: 257-265.Sathe SS, Lavate RA and Sajjan MB, 2015. Therole of organic constituents of Avicennia in animalnutrition. Bioscience Discovery, 6(2):145-151.Tomilinson PB, 1986. The Botany of mangroves.Cambridge University Press.Young AJ, 1993. Factors that affect the carotenoidcomposition of higher plants and algae: InCarotenoides in Photosynthesis (Edn) by AndrewYoungandGeorgeBritton.SpringerScience Business Media.Upadhay VP and Mishra PK, 2010. Phenology ofmangroves tree species on Orissa coast, India.Tropical Ecology, 51(2): 289-295.Wang’ondu VW, Kairo JG, Kinyamario JI,Mwaura FB, Bosire JO, Dahdouh-Guebas F,Koedam N, 2013. Vegetative and reproductivephenological traits of Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.and Sonneratia alba Sm. Flora, 208:522-531.How to Cite this Article:Panda M, Lele N, Samal RN, Murthy TVR, Patnaik AK and Nanda S, 2017. Diversity, Phenology andVariation of Seasonal Leaf Photosynthetic Pigments in Mangroves of Chilika lagoon (Odisha), India.Bioscience Discovery, 8(2):211-219http://biosciencediscovery.com219ISSN: 2231-024X (Online)
Photosynthetic Pigments in Mangroves of Chilika lagoon (Odisha), India Panda M 1 ’ 3 , Lele N 2, Samal RN , Murthy TVR , Patnaik AK4 and Nanda S 1Chilika Development Authority, Govt. of Odisha, India 2Space Application Center (SAC/ISRO), Ahmadabad, Govt. of India 3Post Graduate Depart
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To make the connections between climate change and food abundances Time Required: About 1 hour Materials: Computers with internet capability Phenology worksheets Field Guides (optional) Vocabulary: Phenology - The study of the seasonal activity of organi
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diversity of the other strata. Beta (β) Diversity: β diversity is the inter community diversity expressing the rate of species turnover per unit change in habitat. Gamma (γ) Diversity : Gamma diversity is the overall diversity at landscape level includes both α and β diversities. The relationship is as follows: γ
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