Communicative Strategies In Second Language Acquisition
Communicative Strategies in SecondLanguage AcquisitionA Study of Chinese English Learners’ Attitude and ReportedFrequency of Communicative StrategiesLin WeiKristianstad UniversitySchool of Teacher EducationEnglish IV, Spring 2011D-essay in English DidacticsSupervisor: Carita Lundmark
AbstractCommunicative strategies not only play an important role in communication but they alsocontribute to second language acquisition. Communicative strategies (CS) can help to keepthe communication channel open, encourage hypothesis formation and automatization. Theoverall aim of this essay is to find out whether there is a relationship between Chinese Englishlearners’ attitudes toward the use of communicative strategies and the reported frequency ofusing them in actual communication. Forty Chinese English majors are selected randomly toparticipate in this investigation. They were divided into two different groups according totheir different level of language proficiency. The main methods of this essay are twoquestionnaires and an interview.Based on the framework of achievement strategies and reduction strategies and through theinvestigation of the relationship between the attitude toward communicative strategies and thereported frequency of using them in communication, three tentative conclusions have beendrawn. Firstly, a learner’s attitude of CS has some influence on the use of CS. Secondly;Chinese learners of English tend to use reduction strategies most often. Finally, Chineselearners seldom use achievement strategies although they tend to believe the important role ofachievement strategies in communication. What is more, this essay also analyzes the twogroups of students’ different attitudes and different reported frequency of using CS and findssome reasons for those differences. After the above analyses, the essay categorizes three mainfactors which affect learners’ attitudes and their reported frequency of using CS. It includesthe learner itself, the learning context, and the communication context.Key words: Communicative strategies; SLA; Attitude; Reported frequency
Table of Contents1. Introduction . 11.1 Aim . 11.2 Material and method. 21.2.1 Participants . 21.2.2 Questionnaires . 31.2.3 Interview . 41.2.4 Procedure . 52. Theoretical Background. 52.1 The concept of second language acquisition . 62.1.1 The definition of second language acquisition . 62.1.2 Three key factors of second language acquisition . 62.1.3 Relationship between personality and second language acquisition. 72.1.4 Sociolinguistic factors and second language acquisition . 92.1.4.1 The influence of gender in the process of SLA. 92.1.4.2 The influence of sociocultural factors in the process of SLA . 102.2 Basic communicative competence . 102.3 Definition of communicative strategy (CS). 122.4 Classification of communicative strategies . 132.4.1 Færch and Kasper’s phychological strategies . 132.4.1.1 Achievement strategies . 142.4.3.2 Reduction strategies . 162.4.2 Tarone’s social strategies . 182.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the classification of CS . 193. Analysis and discussion .203.1 Analysis of learners’ attitudes toward CS . 223.2 Analysis of the learners’ reported frequency of using CS . 263.3 Analysis of the relationship between learners’ attitudes and their reported frequency ofusing CS . 293.4 Factors affecting the learners’ choice of communicative strategy . 293.4.1 Learners . 303.4.2 Learning context . 313.4.3 Communication context . 313.5 Implications . 323.5.1 Raising the learners’ metacommunicative awareness of CS. 323.5.2 Encouraging the use of achievement strategies . 323.5.3 Focusing on fluency and accuracy . 334. Summary and conclusion .34References .37AppendicesAppendix 1Appendix 2
1. IntroductionIn our daily communication, there exist no ideal speakers or hearers of a language. There isstill no one who can master a language perfectly and use it appropriately in all socialinteractions. Without doubt, in the process of communication, we may come across a greatnumber of problems. In order to overcome these problems, we have to use somecommunicative strategies.Communicative strategies (CS) play a significant role in second language acquisition (SLA).According to Corder (1978), reduction strategies can be regarded as “risk-avoiding” whileachievement strategies may be seen as “risking-taking”. He also suggests that achievementstrategies (L2-based strategies, cooperative strategies, L1-based strategies and nonverbalstrategies) will contribute to successful language learning. Furthermore, Færch and Kasper(1983) hold the same view. They argue that achievement strategies encourage hypothesisformation and risk is essential for automatization. Tarone (1980), however, expresses adifferent notion, namely that any kinds of communicative strategies can contribute tosuccessful SLA.This essay attempts to investigate the relationship between Chinese students’ attitudestowards communicative strategies and the reported frequency of using them incommunication. This essay further endeavours to analyze the factors that affecting thelearners’ choice of CS. It also put forward some implications for learners’ learning and usingof CS.1.1 AimThis essay focuses on the communicative strategies which are applied in the students’ processof second language acquisition. The overall aim of the essay is to find out whether there is arelationship between the attitude of Chinese learners of English towards the use ofcommunicative strategies and the reported frequency of using them in actual communication.More specifically, the aim of the essay can be stated as follows: (1) to survey Chineselearners’ differences in attitudes towards communicative strategies; (2) to investigate thereported frequency of using communicative strategies; and (3) to examine the correlationbetween attitudes toward five communicative strategies and the reported frequency of using1
them in actual communication. Furthermore, the study will put forward some factors thataffecting learners’ choice of CS. Based on the analysis and findings, this study attempts tooffer some pedagogical implications for the learning and using of CS.1.2 Material and methodFor collecting ample and reliable information and data, this study includes two questionnairesand one interview. Forty students were selected randomly to participate in the questionnairesand the interview for collecting information. Through detailed analysis and comparison of thestudents’ responses to the questionnaires and the interview, the study tries to reach soundconclusions.1.2.1 ParticipantsThe participants of this study are 40 English majors who were chosen randomly from auniversity in China. Twenty of them are freshmen who have not passed TEM-8 (TEM-8: Testfor English Majors, Band 8) and another 20 are senior students who have passed TEM-8. Theresult of TEM-8 is used as a criterion of language proficiency in this study. They are reliablebecause TEM-8 is national proficiency test for English majors, which is organized every yearto check English majors’ proficiency of English after four years of training of universityeducation.All of them have been studying English since Grade One in their Junior Middle Schools, thatis to say, they have had English learning experiences for seven to ten years. Among these 40students, 28 are females while the other 12 are males. All the participants are in their twenties(20-24 years old). Their willingness of take part in the questionnaires and their anonymitywas guaranteed. The details of subjects for this study are shown in Table 1:Table 1 Description of ParticipantsParticipants for investigationLinguistic levelNot passed TEM-8Passed TEM-8Grade14Female 15Male 5Female 13Male 7Average age2023Number2020Sex2
University students were chosen firstly because university students in China have learnedEnglish for at least six years in the middle school. They have acquired a relatively largeamount of basic language knowledge and they are cognitively more mature. Secondly, theyhave a good knowledge of their own strength and weaknesses in learning English, especiallyin dealing with the basic aspect of English: communication. They have acquired somestrategies in dealing with communication itself and have the ability to compare the differentstrategies. Furthermore, with two different groups of students, the data conveys morecomprehensive and detailed information for analysis.1.2.2 QuestionnairesAccording to Parrot (1993), questionnaires are often used to provide data about the generaland common characteristics and preferences of learners, as well as to elicit the response oflearners to specific factors in their learning process. Two main questionnaires oncommunicative strategies for Chinese learners of English were used as the main instrumentsfor this study. These two questionnaires were created with the help of the description ofcommunicative strategies by Færch and Kasper (1983). The goal of the two questionnaires isto assess learners’ attitudes towards communicative strategies and the reported frequency atwhich learners use different communicative strategies for communication.Questionnaire 1Questionnaire 1 (see Appendix 1) is about the students’ attitudes towards CommunicativeStrategies. Five questions are in this part. The questionnaire covers Chinese learners’ attitudestowards four main communicative strategies: L2-based strategy, cooperation strategy, L1based strategy, nonverbal strategy and reduction strategy. For each of the questions, fivechoices are offered. “1” stands for “do not agree at all”; “2” stands for “tend to oppose”; “3”stands for “have neutral attitude”; “4” stands for “almost agree”; “5” stands for “agreeentirely”. The participants were asked to select the one that best represented their thoughts.Questionnaire 2Questionnaire 2 (see Appendix 2) is about the reported frequency at which learners usedifferent communicative strategies for communication. It includes twenty statementsdescribing some strategies. Each statement stands for a minor strategy.3
The questionnaire includes four parts. Part A of the questionnaire stands for L2-basedcommunicative strategies. It has five statements, sub-divided into six minor groups:substituting, generalizing, exemplifying, word coining, restructuring and describing. Part Bstands for cooperative strategies. It has five statements, including appealing for assistancefrom a native speaker or teachers. Part C has three statements, representing L1-basedstrategies. Part D includes four statements, representing nonverbal communicative strategies,such as communication with the help of gestures, facial expression, posture, touch and eyecontact. Part E of the questionnaire represents reduction strategies, and includes threestatements, consisting of two kinds of reduction strategies: formal reduction and functionalreduction strategies. Questionnaire 2 also uses a five-point scale, “1” stands for “never use”;“2” stands for “hardly ever use”; “3” stands for “sometimes use”; “4” stands for “often use”;“5” stands for “always use”. Each category is assigned the value of one to five respectively.Thus, a higher score indicates a more frequent use of a particular strategy.1.2.3 InterviewApart from the two questionnaires, the instrument for this study also includes an interview.The interview intends to provide additional and more specific information. The brief informalinterview serves as the participants’ after-thought explanations about their choice of strategies.Thus, the questions used in the interview are mainly based on the participants’ responses toboth questionnaire 1 and questionnaire 2. Nonetheless, the questions are mainly about whyand how the participants chose certain items in the questionnaire. With the prompting of theresearcher the interviewees could spontaneously comment on his or her cognitive process forthe previous answers to the researcher’s questions concerning their choices of strategies tocertain items. Ten students were chosen as interviewees who differ in their linguistic level, inthe attitudes towards the use of communicative strategies and in the reported frequency ofusing the communicative strategies. The interview focuses on the following two aspects: (1)the reasons of positive attitude toward the use of communicative strategies; (2) the reasons fora high/low frequency of using a particular communicative strategy.The interviews were carried out on an individual basis and conducted in the form ofcomputer-accessed personal interviewing. The interviewer and one participant at a timecommunicated through the chatting software-QQ. The content of the interviews was recordedfor further analysis.4
1.2.4 ProcedureThis investigation was conducted through a systematically and carefully designed procedure.The procedure consists of certain sequential steps, which were conducted with the help ofQQ- an instant message (IM) software similar to MSN but more popular among Chinesestudents to communicate with via the computer.The first step was to select participants, which was settled with the aid of the researcher’scolleague at a university in China. All participants showed great willingness and supportwhen informed about the objective of the study. By selecting their QQ numbers, it waspossible for the researcher to communicate directly with them.Secondly, with the convenience provided by the internet, the questionnaires were sent to oneof the researcher’s colleagues by e-mail. With the help of the colleague, the students weregathered and the questionnaires for the students were administered in the classroom. Aftercollecting all the responses to the questionnaires, the information was sent back to theresearcher by e-mail for analysis. After the analysis of the questionnaires, a brief interviewwas conducted to get further information about their cognitive process for the questionnaire.The last step was to collect and analyse the data which came from the two questionnaires andthe interview. There are twenty items in the two questionnaires. Each item’s score rangesfrom one to five. In questionnaire 1, it ranges from do not agree at all to agree entirely. Inquestionnaire 2, it ranges from never use to always use. These data are analyzed by statisticalanalysis, including, analysis of the learners’ attitudes toward CS, the learner’s reportedfrequency of using CS and the relationship between the learners’ attitudes and their reportedfrequency of using CS. The analysis of the learners’ attitudes and their reported frequency areused to check and compare the mean scores. This paper also applies to analyze the differencesin attitude and the reported frequency of students with two different levels of linguisticproficiency. What is more, the interview will give us some additional and more specificinformation.2. Theoretical BackgroundThis section is a literature review of previous research related to how human beings deal withcommunicative strategies and their relationship between their attitudes and the reported5
frequency of using the communicative strategies. It provides the background information forthe following analysis.To begin with, the focus will be on a brief introduction of second language acquisition (SLA).To master second language efficiently, it is better to pay more attention to the learner’s age,motivation, learning style and some social factors. After presenting the basic aspects of SLA,this section continues to explore the previously related concepts and studies on thecommunicative strategies (CS), the general description of communicative competence, theclassification of CS, taxonomies of CS. Among all the issues, the essay first observes theconcept of SLA.2.1 The concept of second language acquisitionThe content of the following subsections could be referred to the definition of secondlanguage acquisition, three key factors of second language acquisition, the relationshipbetween personality and second language acquisition and some sociolinguistic factors insecond language acquisition.2.1.1 The definition of second language acquisitionThe systematic study of how
in dealing with the basic aspect of English: communication. They have acquired some strategies in dealing with communication itself and have the ability to compare the different strategies. Furthermore, with two different groups of students, the data conveys more comprehensive and detailed information for analysis. .
2.4.15 Conceptualization of Communicative approach 43 2.4.16 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) implementation 47 2.4.17 Application of CLT around the World 53 2.4.18 Educational reforms in Asian countries 60 2.4.19 Adapting communicative approach for Asian countries 64 2.5 Teachers‟ perceptions of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in .
The Application of Communicative Approach in English Teaching . Hu Shen, Gong Wei . Art and Science department, Chengdu College of UESCT, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610000, China . . Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is the English name of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Communicative teaching method originated in the 1970s, and has undergone
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. It refers to a diverse set of principles that reflect a communicative view of language and language learning and that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Communicative Language Teaching involves being able to
The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop communicative competence [1]. The purpose of CLT is to provide the learner with unrestrained access to the social, cultural and pragmatic aspects of language. CLT aims at achieving communicative .
A Description of the Communicative Approach. Communicative language teaching can be defined as an approach which regards communicative . believe in fostering the students' ability of applying foreign language through the language function and contents. Language is the tool of exchanging feelings. W hat foreign language teaching should
Communicative Teaching Applying Communicative Teaching Practices in a Culturally Inclusive Classroom . Agenda Communicative Language Teaching: Merits and Problems . Culturally Responsive Communicative Teaching is an EFL teaching approach that was developed by Dr. Li Yin, to provide a teaching framework appropriate for Asian classrooms .
claimed that communicative language teaching is a cornerstone to develop many forms of teaching methods; it covers four English skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. In the book Communicative Language Teaching Today, Richards [5] (2006) stated that "Communicative Language Teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the .
Phase 2: Classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s) Phase 3: Current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present) Let us first consider the transition from traditional approaches to what we can refer to as classic communicative language teaching. Phase 1: Traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s)
