NAVORD REPORT - DTIC
NAVORD REPORT2460 «2p%#LOW VELOCITT DETONATION OF CERTAINPRIMARY EIPLOSIVESCJ5Uuii i.28 May 1952If IS*ifSf IwiffeSf 1IMH w »-v- o»» nilwUli VMJlf« jfi LAtfWUTUIIir, M&mLJkM&
—t,*IIk-NAVORD Report 2*f60LOW TELOCITY DETONATION OF CERTAINPRIMARY EXPLOSIVESBy:R. H. F. StresauApproved by:Acting Chief, Explosives P oTy»rties DivisionABSTRACT:Tiie nature of the damagp sustained by \7ubesin which the explosives were confined indicated thatboth lead azide and mercury fulminate, when pressed torather high densities, reacted in a j i y different Mannerthan when loaded sr slightly lover densities. It wasfound that this different type of reaction was induced byinitiation within a limited range of vigor. Measurementsof propagation velocity gave three ranges for mercuryfulminate ,000 to 5,000 meters per second, 1, 00 to1,700 meters per second and a few inches per second. Onlythe two upper ranges were observed for lead aside. Morevigorous initiation resulted in a greater tendency tow.irdreactions in the higher velocity ranges. Further observationsof the intermediate, 1, 00 to 1,700 meters per second,velocity range of mercury fulminate showed no differencebetween the velocities obtained with 0V1 and 0V15 diametercolumns nor did the velocity vary when measured over 1, 2,and 3 inch column lengths. An attempt to induce a reactionof this type in 0'.'2 diameter columns resulted only inreactions which propagated at velocities in the high ranjjeof ,000 to 5,000 meters per second. Experiments with ,various confining media seemed to show some effect ofconfinement but the results were too scattered to bestatistically significant. Several possible mechanisms pi*the reaction are discussed.Explosives Research DepartmentU.S. NAVAL ORDNANCE LABORATORYWHITE OAK, MARYLANDi'V-SB
'iNAVDRD Report 2*f60I28 May 1952This report Is a discussion of a phenomenon which was firstincidentally observed in the course of ocher experiments.Because an understanding of this phenomenon might be expectedto contribute to the understanding of the initiation ofdetonation, further studies were made under Task AssignmentN0L-Re2c-l-l(EP)-52. Most of the experimental work reportedherein was done by L. E. Starr and C. W. Goode. Theobservations which have been made up to the present arepreliminary in nature, but seem to be quite convincingevidence of the existence of an unusual phenomenon. Thematerial reported herein was presented at a meeting of theAmerican Physical Society in Washington, D. C, on 3 May 19?2.The present report is for ix-formation only and is not meantas the balls for action.V/. G. SaiTHDLERRear Admiral, USNCommander/jff. . ABLARDL/By direction xX
\rNAVORD Report 2*4-60cgntantg,IntroductionPropagation Velocity MeasurementsDiscussion ConclusionsReferencesPage.12h51* IllustrationsTable 1.Figure 1.Figure 2.Figure 3.Figure h.Figure 5.Figure 6.Figure 7.Figure 8.Propagation Velocity in Meters Per Secondvs Confinement (Densely Packed MercuryFulminate)3Experimental Arrangement Used inStudying the Growth of Detonation . 6Tubes in Which Lead Azide vas FiredAfter Loading at Various Densities . 7Tubes in "Which Mercury Fulminate vasFired After Loading at Various Densities . 8Interior Profiles of Tubes in Jhich LeadAzide vas Fired After Loading at VariousDensities9Interior Profiles of Tubes in WhichMercury Fulminate vas Fired After Loadingat Various Densities10Arrangement of Explosive Column forPropagation Rate Measurements . 11Explosive Reactions of Lea*. Azide,Velocity of Propagation vs LoadingDensity12Explosive Reactions of Mercury FulminateVelocity of Propagation vs LoadingDensity«. 13*I\iiiiu
NAVORD Report 2 60LOW VELOCITY DETONATION OF CERTAINPRIMARY EXPLOSIVESIntroductionStable low velocity detonation of liquid explosivesin small sections has been observed by many investigators.Mulcahy and Vines, reference (a), for example report thatnitroglycerine in 0.5 mm film detonated at a rate of 1.800meters per second while in 0.15 mm and thicker films itdetonates at over 5s000 meters per second. Chantor andRatner. reference (b), report similar results for nitroglycerineand nitroglycol. Low velocity reactions of solid explosives,both primary and high explosives, have also been observedfrequently, but generally as a transient phenomenon associatedwith the growth or decay of detonation.The observations reported herein are of apparentlystable reactions of lead azide and mercury fulminate whichpropagate at velocities of the order of one third of thatfor high order detonation of these materials.t*IIIn the course of some studies of the growth of detonation,it was observed that the effects of the explosions of bothlead azide* and mercury fulminate upon the containers in uhichthey were loaded changed abruptly when they were loaded atpressures such that the interstitial voids accounted for lessthan six or seven percent of the volfme. In these experiments,the explosives were loaded into very heavy walled brass tubes,Figure (1). made by drilling and reaming O'.'l O diameter holescentrally in one inch bar stock. The tubes were counterboredat one end to receive electric initiators. The tubes wereloaded by increments not more than one diameter in length tokeep variations of density within bounds. The electricinitiators used were of special design allowing for the useof carefully measured quantities of the initiating explosive,eighteen milligrams of lead styphnate. After firing, the tubeswere sectioned and observations made of the variations in thediameter of the hole with length. Figures (2), and (3) arephotographs of typical groups of specimens. Note that thediameters of the holes increase with loading density and thenabruptly decrease when the percentage voids is reduced to less Dextrinated lead azide was used in all of these experiments.i
V- *VXP** -i!HAVORD Report 2* 60?than six or seven percent. .The conical fracture, discussedby Starr and Savitt, reference (c), also is absent in thehigh density specimens. It is also apparent 5n the photographthat the interior of the holes in the specimens which hadbeen loaded to high densities is bright rather than darkcolored as in the lower density specimens. Although it cannot be seen in the photograph, the specimens which had beenloaded at the lower densities had numerous longitudinalcracks, apparently having failed in tension due to the outwardmomentum of the wall material, after the internal pressurehad reduced. In contrast, the specimens which had been loadedat the higher density, haa very smooth, gently rippled interiorsas if they had failed from static pressure. The mercury orlead resulting from the reaction of the lead azide or mercuryfulminate respectively was deposited in a bright, nearlymirror like film, whereas the deposits in the holes which hadbeen loaded at high density were dull black. Figures (h) and(5), are superimposed shadowgraph tracings of the cross sectionsof holes resulting from charges loaded at several densities.Note that the enlargement of the holes resulting from theaction of the high density explosive is intermediate betweenthat caused by the low density explosive and that caused bythe explosive of intermediate density.Propagation Velocity MeasurementsThe observations discussed above left little dcmbt thatthe reaction of the highly compressed explosive is unlike thatof the less dense material. Gne characteristic of such aprocess which can be readily measured, is the velocity withwhich it propagates. The arrangement of the explosive forpropagation rate measurements is shown in Figure (6). 'lheexplosive columns were quite similar to those used in theexperiments' mentioned above, except that they, and the tubesin which they were confined, were made in three sections sothat a start and a stop probe could be inserted. The idnizedconductive gases of the reaction front were used to generate a"start" and a "stop" signal to start and stop a Potter counterchronographo Except for the time measurement apparatus, thetechnique was similar to that discussed in reference (dj.Propagation velocity loading density data obtained in thismanner are plotted in Figures (7) and (8). Note that thedetonation velocities of both lead azide and mercury fulminateapproach 5)000 meters per second at their crystal densities,but that both materials also have propagation rates in theneighborhood of 1,500 meters per second at high densities.hti*«-«».« ' v'.»«t-- -«'JMiiMH M.V
NAVORD Report 2 -60, Further experimentation showed that the type ofreaction which occurs is dependent upon the vigor ofinitiation. If, in the arrangements shown in Figures (1) and(6), mercury fulminate loaded at 60.0C0 psi is initiated "bymeans of a flash charge of fifty milligrams of lead styphnateor as little as five milligrams of locsely packed lead azide,it detonates at the high rate, about ,?00 meters per second.If the same material is initiated by means of eighteenmilligrams of lead styphnate, it will probably propagate atabout 1,1 00 to 1,700 meters per second and if it is initiatedby as little as five milligrams of lead styphnate it is morelikely to burn at a rate of a few centimeters per second.The rate of the most probable reaction increases with thevigor of initiation. Lead azide has more tendency to detonateat its high rate and has not been observed to react at apropagation rate less than a thousand meters per second inthese experiments.Although the low velocity detonation is somewhatvariable in velocity, no significant difference was notedbetween the velocities measured over distances of one, twoand three inches. Mercury fulminate, pressed at 60,000 psireacted with a propagation rate of l,5l0 to 1.700 meters persecond in 0210 diameter columns and 1,580 to 1,720 metersper second in CV150 diameter columns. In the same set ofexperiments and under as nearly identical conditions aspossible O'. diameter columns of luercury fulminate detonatedat between * ,l60 and 5.220 meters per second. Five shotswere fired in each of the above experiments. One specimeneach of the 0715* and 0V2 diameter columns burned at a rate ofa few inches per second.One tenth inch diameter columns of mercury fulminateloaded at 80,000 psi in steel, copper and aluminum gave thefollowing results:Tfltqe IPropagation Velocity in Meters Per Second vs Confinement(Densely Packed Mercury Fulminate)1t—-*i#SifigiC02E22178010 0l* 60MkO1780151512801V10lVlOl* 60Alinnlntnn513011701170T5T —-1I
&r*&aDBrs* T;i*** rjg» .umg'ffi' nmraMra»ffHfyymp yrfcT :' - * ** 3: - % **- - NAVORD Report 2*f60Although these results might be said to give some indicationof a trend, the differences are not statistically significant,DiscussioniThree possible mechanisms have been suggested forreaction described above. (1) The expansion of the tubedue to the pressure of the product gases is transmitted bythe metal to sections "where this pressure is not acting.The expansion of the tube ahead of the reaction zone exposesnew peripheral surface of the explosive column over which thereaction propagates quite rapidly. This expansion would betransmitted at the velocity of a shear wave in the metal.The original experiments were with brass and copper in whichmaterials transverse waves propagate at velocities in thesame range as those mentioned above. The lack of correlationbetween velocity of propagation and the transverse wavevelocities of the several other confining media used reducesthe tenability of this hypothesis. (2) The reaction is alow velocity detonation of the type predicted by the curvedfront theory of Eyring et al,, reference (e). This wouldbe a true detonation in the sense that it is a shockpropag»ted reaction. As pointed out 'ay Eyring, et al.,reference (e), and by Bowden, reference (f), reactions canbe propagated by shocks of thi3 intensity only through theformation of hot spots, since the energy available per unitvolume in such shocks is sufficient to raise the temperatureonly a few degrees. The low detonation predicted by the curvedfront theory has an inverse diameter effect, i.e. largerdiameter charges have lower low detonation velocities thansmaller diameter charges. Some of the low velocity detonationsin liquids display this effect. As noted above, the phenomenondiscussed herein shows no evidence of such an effect. Theexperimental errors, of course, may be sufficient to concealsuch effects. (3) The reaction is a high velocity burningreaction in which the pressure and hence the burning rate islimited by the yielding of the confining metal. Such highvelocity burning might be predicted by an extension of thetheory of growth of detonation in solid explosives, proposedby Andreev, reference (g). According to this theory, theincrease or decrease of burning rate depends upon the relationbetween the rate at -vhlch gas is evolved by the reaction andthat at which it can escape from the region in which thereaction takes place. If the rate of evolution is greater thanthe rate of escape the pressure and hence the propagation rateI* gc rr-j. mmmwn m :*
V»353 "*STS»VB»f»»pttft,.-yr ' -afT W'.' iMtman",:-«*»X.!U*' i2. **V.!.i. » '- %«?NK* * «- 'NAVORD Report 2*60will Increase. Conversely if the rate of escape is greaterthe propagation rate will decrease. Thus, if in a givensystem the rate of evolution is greater than the rate ofescape at all pressures above initial conditions, thereaction will accelerate until its propagation rate islimited by other factors. In most cases, the limit isdetermined by the density and compressibility of the explosiveand products, and the reaction so limited is the normaldetonation of the material. According to this view, thereactions discussed herein might occur when the yielding ofthe metal increases the effective escape rate to a value inexcess of the rate of evolution. It is plain that such areaction would be more or less stable. If this interpretationis correct there should be some correlation between thepropagation rate of such motcrials and the strength of thematerials in which they are confined. Table 1 shows someindication of such a correlation but the spreid of the data issuch that the differences In rates for the various confiningmedia are not statistically significant.ConclusionsProm the foregoing it may be concluded that: (1) undercertain conditions lead azide and mercury fulminate undergoprogressive explosive decomposition with a propagation rateof 1,200 to 1,700 meters per second; (2) the probability ofsuch a reaction occurring depends upon loading density,column diameter, vigor of initiation, and. probably, stateof confinement. These conditions appear to be quite critical,This type of reaction was observed only In explosives loadedat a very high density in tubes 021 0 Inside diameter andsmaller; (3) it appears Improbable that the reaction can beexplained as a surface reaction related to the velocity oftransverse waves in the confining medium. It may be eithera low velocity detonation of the l nd predicted by Eyrlng,et al., reference (e). or a high velocity deflagaration ofthe kind which might be predicted from the theory of Andreev,reference (g).iiF. STRESAUI
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i. AV7—S».*E .Jti. „IiNAVORD Report 2 -60Refarences(a)M.F.R. Mulcahy and R.G. Vines, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London)AlgL, 210-223 (19 7), Initial Stages of T xplosion inNitroglycerine(b)J.I5. Chantor and S.B. Ratner. Compt. rend. aead. sci.TJSSR, Jtl, 29V295 (lS 3)t Velocity of Detonation ofNitroglycerol and Nitrogiycol(e)NavOrd Report 2369, Spelling Produced by Detonation ofExplosives in Very Heavy-Walled Metal Tubes, L.E. Starrand J. Savitt, 18 Mar 1952(d)NavOrd Report 2282, Small Scale Technique for Measurementof Detonation Velocities, L.D. Hampton and 2LH. Stresau27 Dec 1951(o)H. Eyring, R.E. Powell. G.H. Duffey and R.B. Parlin,Chem. Rev. } , 69-181 (196-9), The Stability of Detom(f)W.O. Penney, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), .2J&, (1950),A Discussion of DetonationCg)K.K. Andreev, Cocrot. rend. acad. sci. USSR II. TTo,29-32 (19*f6), On the Dependence of tho Burning Vel ocityof Secondary and Initiating Explosives Upon the PrPressureIhII
of carefully measured quantities of the initiating explosive, eighteen milligrams of lead styphnate. After firing, the tubes were sectioned and observations made of the variations in the diameter of the hole with length. Figures (2), and (3) are photographs of typical groups of specimens. Note that the
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Research Laboratory OTIC FILE COPY HQ-IFS Maintenance Resource Prediction Model (MRPM) System Manual DTIC by CE Boon Go NOV141990 Edgar S. Neely D Maintenance Resource Prediction Models (MRPMs) are a set of models that run on various computer systems to assist Army managers to plan and program maintenance
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Tulang Penyusun Sendi Siku .41 2. Tulang Penyusun Sendi Pergelangan Tangan .47 DAFTAR PUSTAKA . Anatomi dan Biomekanika Sendi dan Pergelangan Tangan 6 Al-Muqsith Ligamentum annularis membentuk cincin yang mengelilingi caput radii, melekat pada bagian tepi anterior dan posterior insicura radialis pada ulna. Bagian dari kondensasi annular pada caput radii disebut dengan “annular band .
