SPRING 2018 Bluffs, Beavers, And Bullets: The Explorations .

Bluffs, Beavers, and Bullets:The Explorations of Jedediah Smith and His Contributions Toward the Realization of Manifest Destinywere running dangerously low on food. 14 By mid-November,they descended into the lush San Bernardino Valley in dreadfulshape. The “rugged and miserable” men shambled alongbeside emaciated horses bearing the loads of “Fur Traps,Saddlebags, Guns, and Blankets.” 15 Despite their condition,Smith and his eighteen men had accomplished an incrediblefeat. They completed a grueling desert crossing, travelingover thirteen hundred miles without losing a single man. Theproblem was that they were now trespassing on Mexican land.The men were accepted generously into Mission San Gabriel,but Smith was ordered into San Diego to meet with GovernorEcheandia. Believing Smith was a spy and suspicious of hisintentions in California, the Governor ordered the Americansleave the same way they had arrived. The party soon setoff back through the San Bernardino Mountains, headingnortherly along the backside of this range and entering thesouthern end of the Central Valley, catching beaver along theway. By April, the trappers had accumulated 1500 pounds ofbeaver pelts, which they would need to take back east to therendezvous. 16 However, the towering Sierra Nevada Mountainrange stood in the trappers’ way. In his journal Smith wrote,“I begin making arrangements for marching eastward towardthe Rendezvous in the Mountains which I then looked on as ahome.” The trappers’ first attempted crossing was a completefailure. With snow eight feet deep and more falling fromthe sky, Smith admitted the conditions made “the prospectof proceeding very doubtful.” 17 Smith decided that the bestcourse of action would be to leave the brigade behind andcross the Sierras with only two of his best men. With 7 horsesand 2 mules, Smith was able to cross the Mountains in eightdays.18 However crossing the Great Basin was a challenge ofits own. It contained some of the toughest terrain that Smithhad yet faced. When Smith and his men finally arrived at therendezvous over a month later they were “mere skeletons.”According to Smith, there was great excitement from the furtrappers in camp as “myself and party had been given up aslost.”19 The completion of the journey had made Smith thefirst American to cross overland to California through thesouthwest, and the first white man to cross over the SierraNevada Mountains and the treacherous Great Basin.Soon thereafter Smith’s party set off once again from therendezvous to rejoin the men he had left behind in northernCalifornia, intending to trap his way up the coast to theColumbia.20 On the way, Smith once again encountered theMohave Indians, who on their previous journey had beenpeaceful. After stowing supplies in rafts to cross the ColoradoRiver, some of the trappers began swimming the rafts acrossthe river. About half of Smith’s party remained on the bankwhen the Mohaves raised a war cry and started attacking thetrappers with clubs, arrows, and rocks.21 Jedediah Smith anda handful of his men watched as their comrades were hackedto death on the opposite beach. As hundreds of Indians beganswimming across the river toward his men, Smith took action,and “lopped down the small trees in such manner as to clear a-3-place in which to stand while the fallen poles formed a slightbreastwork.” As the Indians approached, Smith ordered hismen to fire and the Indians dispersed. Awaiting nightfall,Smith and his remaining men escaped into the desert, andeventually reached the trappers that he had left behind. Afterreaching his men, the party was in a dire need of suppliesand horses. He would out of necessity “try once more for thehospitality of the Californias.” Smith traveled to MissionSan Jose and was later escorted to Monterey as an intruder.After being assessed again by Governor Echeandia, Smithwas released and allowed to purchase supplies and 300horses and mules. Soon thereafter he began the expeditionup through what was then called “Alta California” towardsthe coast to the Columbia River. 22 From January to Juneof 1828, the trappers slowly moved north in the unrelentingrain, trapping as they went. Traveling deep into northernCalifornia, Smith turned northwest toward the Pacific Coast.After nearly 6 months “on the road” the brigade passedinto Oregon territory and marched towards the ColumbiaRiver.23 In the middle of July, Smith and two men canoed upthe north branch of the Umpqua River on a reconnaissancemission. When they returned later that day and approachedcamp, a large group of Kelawatset Indians began to slaughterthe fifteen trappers still in camp. Smith and his companionspaddled to the far shore, and rushed to Fort Vancouver,controlled by the rival Hudson Bay Company. Only one manin camp, Arthur Black, managed to escape and made his way100 miles to Fort Vancouver. Despite the deaths of Smith’smen, they had accomplished an amazing feat. The brigadehad been the first group of white men to travel overland fromCalifornia to Oregon. Smith’s expedition into the Northwestwas later traced onto twenty maps. 24Through his expeditions, Smith gained an understandingof the far west that was superior to any other men of his era.According to the American Geographical Society, “Longbefore any other man of discernment, Jedediah Smith learnedand understood the nature of the complex area known asthe American Far West.”25 Because of his untimely death byComanches in 1831, a large section of Smith’s geographicalrecords were lost forever, but the information that he didprovide was inscribed on the most accurate map of the time.26His original map is now gone, but its content was overlaidby George Gibbs on a map drawn by John C. Fremont. HadSmith’s complete knowledge been revealed, he would havesurely advanced American understanding of the west byfifteen years, for Fremont’s map of the west did not appearuntil 1845.In addition to his significant geographical discoveries,Smith also made important contributions to the fur trade inAmerica. The quest for wealth, self-reliance, and adventurewere paramount to the realization of Manifest Destiny,and a profitable fur trade encompassed all three aspects.When Ashley’s men left in 1822, one of the most popularnewspapers of the day, The Niles Weekly Register, wroteContinued on page 4

Bluffs, Beavers, and Bullets:The Explorations of Jedediah Smith and His Contributions Toward the Realization of Manifest Destinythat “if they are successful, the expedition will not only bevery profitable to themselves, but a great national benefit,in laying the foundation for an extensive fur trade.”27 Theirprediction was prophetic. By the time Smith was killed, fewothers matched his contributions to the fur trade. He andhis colleagues made a major improvement to the fur tradethrough the introduction of the rendezvous system. Priorto the rendezvous system, trader-forts were the means bywhich furs were collected and transported back east. Indianswould supply furs to “factories” which were exchanged forsubstandard goods. 28 This method eventually failed and wasunable to turn a sizable profit because the factories were oftenso poorly managed that Indians refused to trade there. Instead,Ashley and Smith pioneered the rendezvous system, whichrevolutionized the trade. The system was first used in 1825.A party of one hundred men was dispatched into the RockyMountains, where they then split up into small fur trappingbrigades. The men trapped from the fall until the summer,at which point a rendezvous was held at a prearranged timeand location. The trappers brought the season’s fur to thislocation, where they were given a prearranged rate of onehundred and thirty dollars, or some “free trappers” insteadreceived a fixed rate for each fur that they had brought. 29Fresh men and supplies were also sent to the rendezvous fromSt. Louis. The firm of Smith, Jackson, and Sublette marked upgoods and charged extremely high prices for common itemslike blankets, gunpowder, and muskets. The annual RockyMountain rendezvous was held in either Wyoming, Utah,or Idaho at a central location, which was easily reached byall directions. Because of this location, rival fur companiesconverged and established deals and other arrangements withone another. This yearly meeting “took on the aspect of aninternational fair.”30 When the event ended, trappers whowanted to continue trekked back into the wilderness withfresh supplies and traps, and those who longed to return backeast, left with the caravan that took the newly caught fur to St.Louis. The large caravans constituted perfect transportationbecause their large numbers of men protected them fromdangerous Indian raids. This system completely altered howfurs were collected, exchanged, and distributed back east, andits introduction ushered in a new era of western trade. 31During the second rendezvous of 1826, Ashley decidedto sell his interest in the company to the emerging leaders ofthe fur trade: Smith, Jackson, and Sublette. The new firm’saim was to “find new frontiers for American fur interestsand in so doing to focus national attention on the west.” 32Even though Ashley sold out to the new partners, the contractgave him the rights to sell their furs. While Sublette ran andorganized supply trains to the rendezvous, Jackson led histrapping parties through territory already under control ofAmerican trappers. Meanwhile, Smith led with his men to thefar reaches of the frontier, searching for new productive furareas to trap. When the three men returned from their exploitsin 1827, they had already raised 22,690 dollars worth of fur,-4-equivalent to just over half a million dollars today. During thesame year, Ashley was in the middle of negotiating with theFrench Fur Company; if completed the French would havecome into direct conflict with Smith, Jackson, and Subletteon the fur plains of the west. Luckily Sublette was able tosabotage the new partnership by offering Ashley an enticingdeal. If the French had joined forces with Ashley, there mostcertainly would have been a fur war between the Americansand the French that would have “obscured the importanceof the west to the nation.”33 Because of Smith, Jackson, andSublette’s astounding success they were granted a license thatpermitted them to trade with Indians for two years west ofthe Rocky Mountains. Thus, the partnership became a threatto the Hudson Bay Company’s monopoly on the fur tradein the northwest. For the first time, Americans clashed withthe British for occupancy of the Northwest coast under theconvention of 1818. The firm’s intrusion into the disputedOregon territory had “enormous weight at the conferencetable when the final Anglo-American settlement of the Oregoncountry was made in 1846.” 34 The three men split at the 1827rendezvous. Smith returned to the west coast and then movedup the coast to Oregon. Meanwhile, Jackson remained in themountains, and Sublette roamed through Blackfoot territory.The trappers had all taken positions in which they couldcompete with the British, and in doing so advance America’sholdings in the west.When Smith emerged from the Mountains in late 1826and descended to the Mexican settlements on the coast, hehad taken the first step in establishing a new commercialnetwork. Whether he realized it or not, he would soon helpmake American trade a global phenomenon, paving theway for his nation’s position as an economic powerhouse.35While Mexican authorities were detaining Smith, Americanship captains helped translate in the exchanges between himand his captors. Because Smith was being detained for nothaving proper documentation stating his reason for being inCalifornia, Smith would be released if he obtained papersfrom the American sea captains. In Smith’s words, “If theAmericans who were in the harbor of San Diego would sign apaper certifying that what I gave as the reason of my comingto that country to be substantially correct I might then havepermission to trade for such things as I wanted.”36 All ofthe American captains in the harbor signed the appropriatedocumentation, and Smith was released and ordered out ofCalifornia. When Jedediah Smith was released and returned tothe 1827 rendezvous, he shared news with the other trappersof possible overland trading opportunities to the Pacific.When Smith and his party returned once again to California,Governor Echeandia was outraged, but the Ship captainsonce again came to his side. This time, British trader WilliamHartnell helped Smith get out of his diplomatic predicamentalong with a number of other captains from all facets ofthe Pacific Maritime trade. 37 Once in San Francisco, Smitharranged for the sale of over 1500 pounds of beaver to theContinued on page 5

Bluffs, Beavers, and Bullets:The Explorations of Jedediah Smith and His Contributions Toward the Realization of Manifest DestinyFranklin captained by John Bradshaw.38 The sale of Smith’sfur “constituted the golden movement in American Tradewhen one can pinpoint the lasting union of two major U.Strading networks.”39 For the first time, pelts collected inlandby mountain men had reached a ship captain, thus linkingAmericas previously separate networks of trade. Smith hadset a precedent, and subsequently, many other individualsbegan negotiating trade agreements between the Pacific andthe interior.Jedediah Smith had always been a proponent ofnationalism and cultural supremacy. He entered the trade notonly to make a profit for himself, but also to burgeon Americanclaims in the region. During his excursions in the west,Jedediah Smith expanded American influence into the farreaches of the frontier. Because Smith was the first Americanto explore California, he shared much of what he learned atthe annual fur rendezvous. Impressed with what they hadheard, many fur traders and Mountain men also decided totravel to California, and dazzled by the regions resources andopportunity, many decided to remain in the territory. This ledto a substantial American populace that began to take overcommercial and industrial sectors in the region. 40 Eventually,Americans in California began to make the Mexican officialsuneasy about their intentions. Hence, Smith helped to lay afoundation for a growing American influence in Californiathat would eventually lead to its seizure by the United States.Sir George Simpson, the Hudson Bay Company’s chiefexecutive in North America, had one major goal: to excludethe American trappers from the Oregon Country and itsbountiful beaver. He believed that by keeping Americansoutside of Oregon Country, the trappers would be preventedfrom establishing connections with U.S ships that visited theregion. Simpson also concluded that the British would beable to secure much of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, fromthe United States. 41 The British attempted to create a “FurDesert” in the Northwest; by eliminating beaver populations,they believed they could prevent American competition in theregion. However, the HBC’s strategy was not successful, asthe American trappers refused to back down, and they slowlybegan to disassemble the HBC’s domination in the Northwest.In 1824, Jedediah Smith first entered Oregon territory, andimmediately encountered the British trappers, with whom theytrapped in close proximity over the following weeks. Ogden,the leader of an HBC brigade was irate when he discoveredthat the entire Bear River area had been trapped over by theAmericans. Likewise, a number of free trappers workingunder the HBC reported that “the whole country is run overby Americans.” 42 A growing problem for the British wasthe prospect that their free trappers would desert or sell theirfurs to the Americans, for they had grown frustrated with theHBC’s low prices for beaver skins and high prices for goods.Gardner, a member of Ashley’s trappers, walked into Ogden’scamp waving an American flag and proclaiming that they weretrespassing “In the United States Territory,” and claiming that-5-the trappers contracts with the British had no force in U.Sterritory. After the confrontation, twenty four of Ogden’s mendeserted, further weakening the HBC’s control of the area.Before the Americans arrived, desertion at such a scale wouldnot have been possible. 43 When Smith, Jackson, and Sublettereconvened at the 1829 rendezvous at Pierre’s Hole in Idaho,they shared their common experiences of the British threat,and were particularly angered by the Treaty of 1818. In a letterto Secretary of War John Eaton, they described their concerns,stating “The inequality of the convention with Great Britainin 1818 is most glaring and apparent, and its continuance is agreat and manifest injury to the United States.”44 They addedthat the threat of a “British colony, and a military and navalstation,” would violate the treaty. Finally the men describethe easy passage of their wagons into the Northwest territory:“This is the first time that wagons ever went to the RockyMountains, and the ease and safety of which it was doneprove the facility of communicating overland with the PacificOcean.” They conclude the letter by urging, “the conventionof 1818 should be terminated and each nation confined to itsown territory.”45 The men had done their duty, and the futureof American expansion now lay with President Jackson andthe rest of the nation.In 1831, Comanche warriors killed Jedediah Smith at theage of thirty-two while he was traveling on the Santa Fe Trail.By the time Smith had died, he was on the cusp of nationalfame. Before he left St. Louis, he mentioned that he had justcompleted a manuscript containing “All the informationI have personally collected with all that was before knownof our Western Territory,” and that he had travelled “morethan 10,000 miles”46 in a span of nine years. Jedediah Smithendured countless hardships during his career in his quest toadvance himself and his nation. Had Smith’s adventures andmaps been published before his death, he likely would haveobtained fame similar to that of Lewis and Clark 47 JedediahSmith is seldom given enough credit for his contributionstoward American success in the west. Because of Smith’suntimely death, he was forgotten for about ninety years untilattempts were made in the mid 1920s by his descendants andhistorians to publicize his accomplishments.48 For example,an exhaustive research project was completed by MauriceSullivan, who in the 1920s found the lost Journal of 1827-28in the family of Benjamin Green Paddock Smith, Jedediah’syounger brother. Yet even today, few people recognize hisname. Jedediah Smith deserves a status equal to that of themost famous American explorers for his contributions towardthe realization of Manifest Destiny.Notes1.2.3.4.Doyce B. Nunis Jr, “The Fur Men: Key to Westward Expansion, 18221830,” Historian 23, no. 2 (Spring, 1961): 167.Leslie G. Fung, “Jedediah Strong Smith: Escapist Or Capitalist?,” PacificHistorian 21, no. 1 (1977): 75.Ibid.Dale L. Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, (Lincoln,Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1953), 33.Continued on page 6

Bluffs, Beavers, and Bullets:The Explorations of Jedediah Smith and His Contributions Toward the Realization of Manifest on H. Barbour, Jedediah Smith: No Ordinary Mountain Man,(Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009), 52.Aaron Robert Woodard, “William Ashley and Jedediah Smith and theArikara Battle of 1823,” Journal of the West 51, no. 4 (2012): 75.Nunis, “The Fur Men,” 312.Barbour, No Ordinary Mountain Man, 77.Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, 92.Edmund William Gilbert, The Exploration of Western America,1800-1850: An Historical Geography (New York: Cooper SquarePublishers, 1966), 145.Nunis,”The Fur Men,” 169.Eric Jay Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire: The Epic History of the FurTrade in America (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010), 242.Jedediah S. Smith, The Southwest Expedition of Jedediah S. Smith:His Personal A

expansion.1Among the brave men to answer the call was young Jedediah Smith, who at the age of twenty-three, impressed Ashley enough to earn his spot within Ashley’s ranks of trappers and Mountain men. Smith was born in Jericho, New York, on January 6, 1799. His forefathers had been “vigorous