History - Joint Chiefs Of Staff
Historyof theUnified CommandPlan1946–2012Edward J. DreaRonald H. ColeWalter S. PooleJames F. SchnabelRobert J. WatsonWillard J. WebbJoint History OfficeOffice of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffWashington, DC 2013
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataDrea, Edward J., 1944History of the Unified Command Plan 1946-2012 / Edward J. Drea, Ronald H. Cole, Walter S. Poole,James F. Schnabel, Robert J. Watson, Willard J. Webb.pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.1. Military planning--United States--History. 2. Unified operations (Military science)--UnitedStates--History. 3. Operational art (Military science) 4. United States. Joint Chiefs of Staff--History. 5.United States--Armed Forces--Organization--History. I. Cole, Ronald H., 1943- History of the UnifiedCommand Plan 1946-1999. II. United States. Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. JointHistory Office. III. Title.U153.H577 2013355.3’3041097309045--dc232013011425
ForewordFaced with the need to establish unified command of US military forces in peacetime, the Joint Chiefsof Staff in 1946 created an organizational directive, the “Outline Command Plan,” which was the firstin a series of documents known as Unified Command Plans. Approved by the President, the UnifiedCommand Plan prescribes high-level command arrangements for operational forces on a global basis;its structure and the organizational philosophies that structure represents have had a major impact onUS military operations in the post-World War II era. Thus, the History of the Unified Command Planis a useful guide for those engaged in the development of current military policy and strategy as wellas an important reference for students of US policy and strategy during the Cold War.The History of the Unified Command Plan, 1946–2012, covers the formulation of the plan, modifications, and periodic revisions. This volume includes four separate histories that were originally classifiedand an update covering the period from 1999 to 2012. The section describing the development of theUnified Command Plan between 1946 and 1977 was written by Dr. Robert J. Watson, Mr. James F.Schnabel, and Mr. Willard J. Webb and first published in declassified form in the late 1980s. The sectioncovering the period from 1977 to 1983 was written by Dr. Ronald H. Cole and published in a classifiedversion in 1985. The two sections covering 1983 through 1999 were prepared by Dr. Walter S. Poole.Dr. Edward J. Drea prepared the Overview and the update covering 1999 to 2012. Ms. Penny Normanprepared the volume for publication.This volume was reviewed for declassification by the appropriate US government departmentsand agencies and cleared for release. Although the text has been declassified, some of the cited sourcesremain classified. This volume is an official publication of the Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefsof Staff, but the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the officialposition of the Chairman or of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.Washington, DCMarch 2013John F. ShortalBG, USA (Ret.)Director for Joint Historyiii
ContentsOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Part One 1946–1977Origins in World War II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9The First Unified Command Plan, 1946. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9CINCFE, CINCPAC, CINCAL, CINCEUR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11CINCLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Developments in 1948. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Northeast Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Changes in the European Theater, 1949–1952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Clarifying Responsibilities, 1950. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Command in the Far East during the Korean War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Interim Revision of the UCP, 1952–1953. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161953 Change in the Executive Agent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16An Air Force Component for CINCPAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Continental Air Defense Command Established. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17The Unified Command Plan, 1955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Changes in Terms of Reference for CONAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Reorganization in 1956: Abolition of CINCFE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Establishment of CINCNORAD; Alteration of CINCONAD’s Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Department of Defense Reorganization, 1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20The Revised Unified Command Plan, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Refining Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21CINCLANT’s Assumption of African Tasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Command Changes for Cuban Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Strike Command Established. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Altered Arrangements for the Middle East and Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24CARIBCOM becomes USSOUTHCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25CONAD Assigned to Defend against Space Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Command Relations in the Vietnam War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Developments in the Late 1960s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Blue Ribbon Panel Considers the Unified Command System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27The Unified Command Plan, 1971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281974–1975 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Adjustment in the PACOM Boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Designation of MAC as a Specified Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34v
Part Two 1977–1983Requirement for a Biennial Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Air Defense of the Panama Canal, 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Sub-Saharan Africa, 1976–1978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force, 1977–1979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39The Middle East and the First Biennial Review, 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40The Caribbean Basin and the First Biennial Review, 1980–1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42The Transition from RDJTF to USCENTCOM, 1981–1982. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44The 1982 Biennial Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47The New Unified Command Plan of 1983. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Part Three 1983–1993Setting Up US Space Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Readjusting for a Special Operations Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56The Evolution of USTRANSCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Debating Smaller Adjustments, 1983–1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Adapting to a New World Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Strategic Command: An Easy Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Expanding the Atlantic Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Part Four 1993–1999Oiling the Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Emerging Issues: Homeland Defense and Information Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Part Five 1999–2012The 2002 Unified Command Plan (UCP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Service Reactions to OSD’s 2002 UCP Proposals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Changes to the 2002 UCP: Change-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Changes to the 2002 UCP: Change-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86The 2004 UCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87The Levant (Israel, Lebanon, and Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87TRANSCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88The 2004 UCP Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88SOCOM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912004 UCP Change-1/UCP 2006: The Change-1 Proposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92The 2008 UCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96The 2011 UCP and Change-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103vi
AppendicesI. Dates Unified and Specified Commands Established. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113II. Unified Command Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117III. Chronological Listing of Presidents of the United States,Secretaries of Defense, and Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119IV. Membership of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123V. Glossary of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167vii
OverviewFollowing the experience of global warfare in World War II, the Services recognized the importance ofunity of military effort achieved through the unified command of US forces. Generally, over the next50 years, the Unified Command Plan did adapt to the changing strategic environment and to greatadvances in technology, particularly the growing global reach of US forces. But there were failures,notably the cumbersome command organization for the Vietnam War. The recurring difficulty layin creating an organizational scheme that would centralize control without impinging upon what theServices saw as their basic roles and functions. Much of the history of the Unified Command Plan (UCP)involves debates over how commands should be organized. Such disputes usually pitted those whowanted commands organized by geographic areas against those who advocated forming commandsaccording to functional groupings of forces. Command by forces or functions seemed to restrict Serviceprerogatives, while command by areas appeared to preserve them. The importance and intractabilityof this dispute is, perhaps, best demonstrated by tracing three particularly difficult sets of commandarrangements, those for the Pacific Ocean and Far East, strategic nuclear forces, and general purposeforces based in the continental United States.During 1945 and 1946, Pacific command organization became the main obstacle to completing an“Outline Campaign Plan,” the first version of the UCP. A line had to be drawn between a geographicallyorganized Pacific Command (PACOM) and a Far East Command (FECOM) that was functionallyorganized for the occupation of Japan. The Army pushed for assigning command by forces or functions, a position based on its advocacy of a Department of Defense (DOD) under strong centralizeddirection. Behind the Navy’s insistence upon command by geographical area lay its desire for a looselycoordinated DOD organization that would preserve Service autonomy. Command arrangements, theNavy argued, had to reflect the reality that ships were not tied to functions but constantly steamed fromone area of responsibility into another. Whether to place the Bonin and Mariana Islands under PACOMor FECOM became the bone of contention. The Navy saw all Pacific islands as one strategic entity,while the Army insisted that FECOM be able to draw upon military resources in the Bonin-Marianasduring an emergency. Accordingly, the Commander in Chief, Far East (CINCFE), was given controlover local forces and facilities in these islands, while naval administration and logistics there fell underCommander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC). In 1951, during the Korean War, the Joint Chiefs of Staff(JCS) shifted responsibility for the Bonin and Mariana Islands as well as the Philippines and Taiwanfrom FECOM to PACOM. Five years later, with the Korean War over and the Japanese peace treatyconcluded, FECOM was disestablished over Army protests and PACOM gained control over that area.Command arrangements for the Vietnam War were complex and unsatisfactory. The Army failedto gain approval either for creating a Southeast Asia Command or for raising Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), to a unified command with PACOM in a supporting role. Instead, underCINCPAC, the Commander, US Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (COMUSMACV), largelycontrolled forces and operations within South Vietnam; CINCPAC delegated to its Service components,Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and Pacific Fleet (PACFLT), responsibility for conducting air and navaloperations against North Vietnam and Laos; PACFLT also retained control of 7th Fleet forces provid-1
History of the Unified Command Plan 1946–2012ing gunfire support and air strikes on targets in South Vietnam. Control of B-52s remained under theCommander in Chief, Strategic Air command (CINCSAC), but targets in South Vietnam were selectedby COMUSMACV, refined by CINCPAC, and approved in Washington. CINCPAC’s domination ofcommand arrangements created resentment among senior Army and Air Force officers. In 1972 theArmy Chief of Staff was General William Westmoreland, a former COMUSMACV. He nominatedand pressed for the current COMUSMACV, General Creighton Abrams, to become CINCPAC.Westmoreland’s effort failed. But after Abrams became Chief of Staff of the Army (CSA), he arguedfor radical changes in the command structure in
Thus, the History of the Unified Command Plan is a useful guide for those engaged in the development of current military policy and strategy as well as an important reference for students of US policy and strategy during the Cold War. The History of the Unified Command Plan, 1946–2012, covers the formulation of the plan, modifica-
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Council of War: A History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1942-1991 follows in the tradition of volumes previously prepared by the Joint History Office dealing with JCS involvement in national policy, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Adopt-ing a broader view than earlier volumes, it surveys the JCS role and contributions
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