Proficiency And Motivation: Foundation Of Pre-service .
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 5134th Sriwijaya University Learning and Education International Conference (SULE-IC 2020)Proficiency and Motivation: Foundation of Pre-serviceEnglish Teachers’ Professional Identity DevelopmentFirima Zona Tanjung1,2*, Bachrudin Musthafa1, Yanty Wirza11Faculty of Language and Arts Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, IndonesiaFaculty of Teacher Training and Education, Borneo Tarakan University, Tarakan, Indonesia*Corresponding author. Email: zona borneo@upi.edu2ABSTRACTEach pre-service English teacher is required to be professional as they will teach English subject, moral values,motivate and engage their students in the teaching and learning activities. The purpose of this study was to determinepre-service English teachers’ professional identity viewed from their language proficiency and motivation in enteringteacher education program. This research employed survey method and data were gathered through questionnaire. Thequestionnaire used open-ended and close-ended questions. The stages of analysis consisted of categorizing theresponses, numbering them, and analyzing them using content analysis. Utilizing convenience sampling, there were 54third-year college students getting involved in this study. The results of the study show that there are two cohorts ofparticipants who had not yet taken (53.70%) and had already taken English proficiency test (46.30%) in the universitybefore they conducted school teaching practice. From 25 pre-service teachers having taken EPT, it is found that 52%participants are included in the category of elementary proficiency, 44% participants are included in the category oflow intermediate proficiency, and 4% participant is included in the category of high intermediate proficiency. Thescore range of their EPT classified them into elementary English users. Out of three types of motivation, the dominantmotivation to be a teacher is altruistic motivation (62%). These results indicate that pre-service English teachersshould empower themselves by acquiring higher English proficiency level since they are expected to teach English invaried school level and increase their motivation so it will implicate on their teaching performance during schoolteaching practice and post-degree sustainably.Keywords: Language Proficiency, Motivation, Pre-service English Teacher, Professional Identity.1. INTRODUCTIONTo be a professional English teacher, a pre-serviceteacher is required to have certain educationalbackground and excellent personality [1] that supporttheir possession of four competences (e.g.professional, pedagogic, personality, and socialcompetences) [2]. These four competences cancontribute to the teaching performance and the abilityto personalize models regarding the teaching context.Pennington and Richards [3] state that professionalEnglish teachers construct their identity which is notmerely focused on what they know and how todeliver the knowledge to others but also related totheir capacity of adapting and personalizing thoseinto themselves and their teaching environment.Briefly, in English teaching, professional identity isconstructed by two factors namely foundational andadvanced competences.In this paper, the researchers emphasize onfoundational competences specifically languageproficiency included in language-related identitybecause this competence will allow the teachers touse the target language fluently and confidently indelivering the instruction and giving feedback ontheir students’ oral and written works [4]. Besides,being proficient in language being taught enables theteachers to be “a language model user” for theirstudents [5]. The term of proficiency which theresearchers refer to is “a specialized subset oflanguage skills required to prepare and teach lessons”because it is required significantly while teachersutilize it for communication purposes in the contextof teaching and learning activities [6]”.Copyright 2020 The Authors. Published by Atlantis Press SARL.This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC 4.0 license 7
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513In regards to measure language proficiency, manytests e.g., Common European Framework ofReference (CEFR), IELTS, and TOEFL andcollaboration between government, English teachingassociations, and school institutions are likely to beconducted. Taking these tests and cross-institutionalcollaboration into their national policy, some ASEANcountries have already had their own strategies toimprove the quality of their teachers and students,and the preparedness of teacher candidates. Tomention, the Brunei government through UniversitiBrunei Darussalam (UBD) mainly at its educationfaculty, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute ofEducation (SHBIE) has attempted to providequalified teacher education covering their content andpedagogical knowledge [7] including their languageproficiency. The collaboration between the Bruneigovernment, varied school level institutions, CfBTand the Brunei English Language TeachersAssociation (BELTA) are also significant to endorsethe government policy ensuring the acceleration ofstudents’ learning achievement, provision of welltrained pre-service teachers’, simultaneous teachers’professional development and address the nationalgoal named Vision 2035. Similarly, The Thaigovernment has evolved their national plans toascertain the recruitment of competent and proficientteachers. In addition, CEFR is employed to evaluateand vouch for students’ and teachers’ proficiency [8].The similar progressive endeavor is also undertakenin Vietnam. The Ministry of Education and Training(MOET) is determined to produce prospectiveteachers who are proficiently in English bydeveloping National Foreign Language 2020 in whichthe use of CEFR “is believed to get credibility in thecase of Vietnam [9]”. By the same token, Malaysiaemploys CEFR as their reference to elevate theteaching and learning activities into optimal qualityand use Malaysian University English Test (MUET)to measure the student teachers proficiency as MUETtest result is considered as the required teacherqualification [10]. In Indonesia, TOEFL seems to bemore popular than CEFR since this test is consideredas the “preferred proficiency test” in manyuniversities [11].Particularly, being professional has not beensolely developed based on language proficiency sincethe involvement of motivation contributessignificantly to the initial phase of pre-serviceEnglish teacher to not merely learn English but alsopurposefully enter and choose teaching as profession[12-15]. In this kind profession, the individuals whothen be called as teachers play a number of importantroles as a role model for his or her students, a learner,a task designer, and a learning facilitator [5]. Theaforementioned demanding roles on teachingprofession require the individual who dedicatethemselves in this kind of profession to show “a highdegree of responsibility and altruism” [16]. Further,referring to how impactful teaching profession forthe future of one nation and its generation is, there isa need of high motivation that underpin people to bepassionate on one profession they have chosen.Motivation is a factor that brings enjoyment andsatisfaction simultaneously when we do an activity.Thus, the diverse initial motives that drive people towork may result in their various ways ofaccomplishing tasks based on its difficulty and settingcriteria to success [17-18]. There are various kinds ofmotivation. It can be intrinsic (e.g. people areinterested in and enjoy working on particular things),extrinsic in which people decide to work on particularthings because of its salary, job security and careerstatus, and altruistic motivation such as commitment,love, and passion to dedicate themselves for reducingsocial inequality [19-23]. Concerning various kindsof motivation as one of the key factors that drivespre-service English teachers to be professional ineducational field, these student teachers are alsodemanded to have high-proficiency on English.Proficiency means “a specialized subset of languageskills required to prepare and teach lessons” [6].Briefly, pre-service English teachers can be classifiedinto the professional ones as their motivation leadsthem to make an investment e.g., leveling theirproficiency up.A wide range of studies related to the relationshipbetween motivation, language proficiency, andprofessional identity has already been conducted forthe last two decades by many scholars. Samad,Etemadzadeh, and Far [24] highlighted Iranian EFLlearners’ motivation and how it contributed to theirlanguage proficiency. As they gathered the data, itwas found that the there was a significant correlationbetween students who were highly integrativemotivated and their proficiency achievements.Contrarily, there was no significant correlationbetween the students who were instrumentallymotivated and their proficiency achievements.Another study conducted by Cho [25] showed thatmotivation cannot strongly reflect the gainedproficiency since the finding did not support thedirect causality between those two components.In Indonesian context, Nurweni and Read [26]found that the students’ vocabulary size is inadequateand does not meet the expected standard. Further,Hamied [27] reported that English teachers cannotbuild a real-life communication since they are notsufficiently proficient in English. The lack ofvocabulary which supports the English proficiencyhas become an issue because of the lack of exposureas well. In fact, exposure is required to promote theproficiency [28]. In addition, Renandya, Hamied, and338
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513Nurkamto [11] stated that the process of teachinglearning process in classroom can run smoothly andefficiently when the teachers have adequateproficiency. However, proficiency does not standalone since motivation and teaching skills are alsorequired to promote the professional identity of preservice teachers or in-service teachers. AlthoughPurwanti, Puspita, and Mulyadi’s [29] investigationrevealed that there is a significant correlation betweenstudents with intrinsic motivation and their Englishproficiency achievement compared to those withextrinsic motivation, the correlation between Englishlearning motivation and English proficiency is inweak level. The previous finding confirmed Cho’s[25] study. Then, related to students’ proficiency andtheir in-campus L2 environments that represent preservice teachers’ readiness for their upcomingprofession, Susilo’s [30] research findings showedthat diverse quality of human resources (teachingstaffs or administration staffs) and teaching facilitiesimpacts differently on pre-service teachers’proficiency. On the other hand, pre-service teachers’readiness and choice to have a career in educationalfield is dependent on their extrinsic, intrinsic, andaltruistic motivation [13], [15], [31].Considering the previous researches, this presentstudy aims to determine the pre-service Englishteachers’ initial professional identity regarding theirlanguage-related identity or language proficiency andmotivation in the process of becoming Englishteachers. To do so, the following research questionswere investigated: a) How is the level of pre-serviceEnglish teachers’ language proficiency and itsrelation to their readiness to be professional teachers?b) What is the motivation type of these pre-serviceEnglish teachers to be professional teachers?2. METHODThe present study employed survey as the methodto determine pre-service English teachers’ initialprofessional identity viewed from the combination oftheir language proficiency and motivation, theyencounter during their learning process in order tobecome teachers. According to Abdelal, Herrera,Johnston and Mcdermot [32], the form of open-endedsurvey provide wide opportunity for the participantsto portray themselves particularly about “their ownnotions of who they are, what matters to them andwhy, and how they decide who is or is not included intheir group, without being pigeonholed by theresearcher’s prior biases and interpretations”. Further,it is stated that open-ended questions allow theparticipants to have “greater freedom of expression”in giving their answers or stating their point of view[33].Regarding the aforementioned explanation, theresearchers arranged an open-ended questionnaireand split it into four sections which asked theparticipants’ demographic information, their Englishlanguage proficiency, and motivation of takingEnglish teacher education program related to theirfuture profession. The questionnaire was written inIndonesian in order to allow the participants opinetheir thought or explore their answer. Later, theresearchers displayed the translation of theparticipants’ comments and answers for the purposeof readership. Related to the procedure of collectingthe data, the questionnaire was made online andeasily accessed by the participants. For the researchethics, the researchers informed the participants aboutthe aim of the study and ensured them that theiridentity was written pseudonym. The data analysiswas conducted by making subjective interpretation.The researchers compressed the responses into a setnumber of categories, numbered them with particularvalue, and analyzed them using content analysis [34].Concerning the sampling, the researchers utilizedconvenience sampling. There were 54 participantswho had completed pre-requisite courses offered byEnglish teacher education program at publicuniversity, northern part of Borneo, Indonesia prior topartaking in the study before they enrolled schoolteaching practice program. The 54 participantsconsisted of 44 female pre-service teachers (81.48%)and 10 male pre-service teachers (18.52%). Theparticipants were varied in their birth year. Therewere participants who were born before the year of1998, 1998, and 1999. Additionally, theseparticipants were selected to join in because they hadalready taken a set of pre-requisite course which arerequired to support their latter involvement in schoolteaching practice program. Further, the participantshad different language background. They did not onlyspeak Indonesian but they also spoke vernacularlanguages in their daily life. The other uniquenesswas that they graduated from diverse senior highschools (e.g., not only from language class but alsofrom other class). All of these senior high schoolswere classified into two types e.g., public and privateschools.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.1. Pre-service English teachers’ languageproficiency level and their readiness to beprofessional teachersTo address the first RQ, the researchers asked theparticipants about whether they had already takenEnglish Proficiency Test (EPT) or not. Based on thedata, 25 participants had taken EPT (e.g.,standardized proficiency test organized by the339
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513university by adapting TOEFL as the preferredproficiency test) and 29 participants had not takenany EPT yet. Taking a look at the number ofparticipants who already took the EPT and those whohad not yet taken, it was relatively close. It isinteresting to note that, only a few of them had takenEPT (see Table 1) and realized about their level ofproficiency. Meanwhile, the rest participants still hadnot known yet about their English proficiency. Infact, these participants must ensure themselves abouttheir preparation e.g., their English proficiency beforegoing to the field in terms of conducting theirteaching practice at the pointed schools.Table 1. Range of participants’ English proficiencytest scoresScore ClassificationElementaryLow IntermediateHigh IntermediateAdvanceNot yet taken 50.0053.70100%Based on the data displayed in Table 1, 24.07%participants achieved elementary proficiency while20.37% and other 1.85% participants had lowintermediate and high intermediate proficiency.Considering the score of their proficiency test, themajority of participants fall into the elementary rangeor it can be possibly classified into the A2 level onthe CEFR scale. On the other hand, there were still53.70% participants who did not know in what levelproficiency they were classified. Further, when askedthe participants about when they took EPT, themajority of participants (64%) said that they took thetest less than a year ago, compared to each 28%, 4%and another 4% who took EPT between one and twoyears ago, two and three years ago, and four and fiveyears ago.Reflecting on the aforementioned proficiency testscore, it was revealed that 46.30% of the participantshave already taken EPT and been known that they arestill classified as the English users in the elementaryrange or A2 level on the CEFR scale. Captivatingly,the other 53.70% have not taken any EPT whereas itcan provide the pre-service English teachers abouttheir strengths and weaknesses in Englishproficiency. Therefore, it can be inferred that thesepre-service teachers, who have not taken any EPT orless proficient in linguistic competencies, can getdifficulties to construct their own advancedpedagogies and thus have high dependence onteaching resources [35] so they are not capable todeliver the subject content effectively [36]. Theaforementioned finding and elaboration confirm therelevant researches that highlight proficiency as oneof the issues mainly in the context of English pre-service teachers’ training and education [5], [11],[28].3.2. Type of pre-service English teachers’motivationThe second RQ focused on the pre-serviceteachers’ motivation to be teachers. The participantsgave various responses. Some expressed confidentlyand emotionally such as:My motivation to become a teacher is becausethis profession is part of worship. Becauseteachers are unmarked heroes and also doctors,pilots, and so on succeed because of a teacher.So, I think the teacher is the noblest profession.(TR, F, 21)(Motivasi saya menjadi guru adalah karenaprofesi ini merupakan bagian dari ibadah.Karena guru adalah pahlawan tanpa tandajasa. Dan juga dokter, pilot, dan lainsebagainya berhasil karena seorang guru. Jadisaya rasa guru adalah pekerjaan yang palingmulia.)I want to be like my elder brother who wasalways passionate about teaching English andmaking my parents happy. (Mag, F, 33) (Inginmenjadi seperti almarhum kaka yang selalusemangat dalam mengajar bahasa Inggris danmembuat orang tua bahagia.)Others focused on their satisfaction and ambitionto teach English kids in remote areas.The other motivation is that to become ateacher has a particular satisfaction for me. (Si,F, 18)(Motivasi lainnya yaitu menjadi guru memilikikepuasan tersendiri bagi saya)I want to share knowledge and teach kids inremote areas. (DFi, F, 39)(Saya ingin memberi pengetahuan danmengajar anak-anak di tempat pedalaman)I want to contribute to the progress ofeducation in remote areas.(TPN, M, 4)(Saya ingin memajukan pendidikan dipedalaman)Other participants had a broad reason why theywant to be teachers. In addition, there were severalparticipants rejected to give a comment related totheir motivation to be a teacher. Even, one participantthought that he only took his current major becausehe needed the title for applying a job. In short, theresponse from the participants have been classifiedinto fourteen points and displayed in Figure 1.340
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513Figure 1. Participants’ reason to be teachersFigure 1 shows that 44% participants respondedthat they are motivated to be a teacher because it ispart of their worship. In short, religiosity influencestheir choice to get into teaching profession. In adifferent way, 24% participants thought that whenthey worked on educational field, they would get aparticular position or prestige that distinguishes themwith others. Thus, they considered that teaching is anoble profession. On the contrary, only a smallpercentage of participants show that they chose tobecome a teacher because of their own passion (1%)and the promising salary (3%), while 4% had no ideawhy they enter English teacher education programand the rest (24%) had various reasons of choosingthe major and ambition to pursue their study.Based on the gained results, the researchers foundthat 44% of the participants are motivated byreligious values to teach and affirmed that teachingprofession enables them to express their gratitude toGod through the beneficial and contributive acts forpeople’s life e.g. sharing their knowledge. One of theviewpoints was given by TR who used the phraseteachers as the unsung heroes. The term unsungheroes indicate a significant point that teachers dotheir work sincerely without expecting for awardacceptance. Sincerity is closely related to thereligious values which are commonly being taught infamily institutions and sustainably developing insociocultural circumstances in Indonesia. Byupholding this religious value, TR believes thatteaching profession can give a wide opportunity forpeople to get secured job and puts teaching as thenoblest profession. This reason confirms the previousresearches [13], [31] that in Indonesian context,religious values influence pre-service teachers tochoose teaching as their future profession.Following the religious values is the considerationthat teaching profession enables the pre-serviceteachers to get prestige in society (24%). The currentgroup thinks that when they are involved ineducational field as teachers, their career status isequal to other career status belonged to otherprofessionals such as doctors and pilots. However,the motivation which underpins their choice to beteachers is dissimilar to the previous group since thecurrent one’s motivation can be classified intoextrinsic motivation while the first group lies on thealtruistic motivation. In addition, sharing knowledgeto other percentage (8%) fills the third rank based onthe frequency. Based on the participants’affirmations, they are motivated to share knowledgewith others because they consider the importance ofEnglish mastery mainly for those who living nearborder area or living in a remote area. It is tominimize the gap of knowledge and competencesbetween people who live in a big city and in a small,remote, or border area. These participants want thepeople not to merely learn the language but improvetheir living condition as well so in the future, peoplewho live in a small, remote, or border area can getassurance that they get secure work. This motivationis associated with altruistic motivation in which thepurpose of teaching is to help others and make acontribution to society [37]. Further, there were 3participants or 4% who are in the fourth rate statingthat they just entered the program in order to get thecertificate and graduate as the ones who havebachelor title. Accordingly, it can be inferred that theparticipants still get obscured to determine whetherthey enter English teacher education program becauseof intrinsic, extrinsic or altruistic motivation. Further,their lack of certainty in taking teaching as futurecareer might be related to the shifting of teachers’status in contemporary societal environment and wideopportunity to get “better financial benefits” [38] inanother variety of profession which requires theirEnglish competence.4. CONCLUSIONSBased on the preceding results and discussion,most of pre-service English teachers’ proficiency isclassified in the elementary range (24.07%) orpossibly A2 level on the CEFR scale. In addition,there were only 46.30% pre-service English teacherswho had taken EPT and 53.70% had not taken the testyet. For pre-service English teachers, takingproficiency test mainly before they enrollmicroteaching course and school teaching practiceprogram in their final year of study is very importantbecause it can give them information about whatlinguistic competence, they need to enhance so theycan deliver the subject matter knowledge to theirstudents later. In addition, they will enable to teachEnglish through English confidently. Considering the341
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513motivation type, 44% participants stated that they aremotivated to be English teacher because it is part oftheir worship, 24% thought that teaching professionis prestigious, 1% chose teaching as their futureprofession because of passion, 3% stated thatteaching profession has promising salary, 4% had nospecific reasons to enter English teacher educationprogram and 24% voiced their various reasons topursue tertiary education. Briefly, provided researchresults, pre-service English teachers need to improvetheir proficiency since it is required for their shortterm goal mainly teaching practice in their final yearof completing bachelor degree and long-term goale.g. teaching profession. Besides, for pre-serviceteachers who are still confused whether they willteach or not after graduation, the role of teachereducators and sufficient curriculum is consequentialto increase pre-service teachers’ motivation to getinto teaching field and develop their professionalidentity.Not only focusing on the low level of pre-serviceEnglish teachers’ proficiency, the policy makers inIndonesia also have to provide a set of tests includingspeaking and writing section in order for assessingand getting a comprehensive level of proficiency[39]. Related to the low proficiency, the participantsopine that they have low exposure in using Englishfor their daily life communication [27], [40]. Thus, tocope with such kind of condition, pre-service Englishteachers have to use L2 in their collegial and dailyenvironment. The supportive environment and theintensive involvement of the pre-service Englishteachers in the on-going effort of using English intheir communication can help them retain thelanguage [41-43]. The other point is to allow themuse appropriate learning strategy [44], optimize theuse of media (e.g., English broadcasting programs) asthe learning source and conduct daily practicesoutside class in college environment which canexpose them to the frequent use of English through aninteraction with lecturers, administrative staffs, andpeers [30], [45]. Of the concern is the professionalidentity, in the present study the term professionalidentity related to their language-related identity(language proficiency). Since 46.30% of theparticipants were categorized at the elementary rangeand a further 53.70% was not yet classified, there is aneed to increase pre-service English teachers’awareness of proficiency, familiarize them withproficiency test, and set a minimum score before theydo their teaching practice at school [11].In addition, concerning the issue of pre-serviceteachers’ uncertainty towards their teachingprofession, the role of teacher educators is vital inrecognizing the basis of pre-service teachers’motivations and concerns [46]. Provided thesefundamental points during teaching and learningactivities and communication in the classroom,teacher educators are encouraged, therefore, toformulate a teaching model that enable the preservice teachers to get meaningful learningexperiences and learn the pedagogy of Englishlanguage which in turn will be advantageous for themto reflect on and apply when they enrollmicroteaching course and school teaching practice(Praktik Pengalaman Lapangan) program.It is noteworthy that this study was conducted ina very limited number of participants and taken onlyfrom one institution. Thus, the result of the presentstudy has a number of limitations. Firstly, the studyprovides only the proficiency level test score historyof participants without utilizing proficiency test tofind out their level at the time responding to thepresent instrument. Secondly, the number ofparticipants only involves a localized cohort datafrom certain semester in a single institution.Corresponding to the aforementioned limitations, thefuture empirical research is required by creating amotivation questionnaire, a set of proficiency test,and calculating their relationship as the effort toexamine the pre-service English teachers’ motivationand how they make an investment to achieve certainproficiency level as prospective teachers. In addition,further research is expected to involve moreparticipants since it can afford more findings that canbe drawn to advance the quality of teacher educatione.g., curriculum, lesson content, delivery system, andcreate the college environment sustainably so the preservice teachers will have high motivation and formtheir professional identity simultaneously in pre-,whilst-, and post-degree teacher education.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSAcknowledgments are delivered to the Faculty ofLanguage and Literature, English LanguageEducation Study Program, Universitas PendidikanIndonesia.REFERENCES[1] D. Suherdi, Buku Pedoman PenyelenggaraanPendidikan Profesi Guru Bahasa Inggris, First.Bandung: Celtics Press, 2013.[2] Ministry of National Education Republic ofIndonesia, The National Standard of Education.Indonesia: Government Regulation, 2005.[3] M. C. Pennington and J. C. Richards, “TeacherIdentity in Language Teaching : IntegratingPersonal , Contextual , and Professional Factors,”2016.[4] L. Van Canh and W. A. Renandya, “Teachers’English proficiency and classroom language use: A342
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 513conversation analysis study,” RELC J., vol. 48,2017, pp. 1–15.of English teaching as a career option,” TEFLIN J.,vol. 28, no. 1, 2017, pp. 38–56.[5] B. Musthafa, F. A. Hamied, and S. Zein,“Enhancing the quality of Indonesian teachers inthe ELF era: Policy recommendations,” in TeacherEducation for English as a Lingua Franca:Perspectives from Indonesia, S. Zein, Ed. NewYork: Routledge, 2018, pp. 175–1
proficiency up. A wide range of studies related to the relationship between motivation, language proficiency, and professional identity has already been conducted for the last two decades by many scholars. Samad, Etemadzadeh, and Far [24] highlighted Iranian EFL learners’ motivation and how it contributed to their language proficiency.
The motivation structure analysis will be based on the general knowledge of the theory of motivation, together with the analysis of the employees’ motivation profiles. The fundamental tool used in this process is a cluster analysis and its usage in the creation of motivation programs. The analysis of motivation factors and their order will be
ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION IN THE PROFESSIONAL ENVIRONMENT. For our study and for a better understanding of the relationship professional identity-motivation, we considered relevant the presentation of aspects regarding motivation, be it economical or professional. 3.1 Economic motivation . The financial motivation is based on financial stimulus.
motivation for all of their daily activities - including reading! Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation: behavior that is driven by internal rewards. Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation that arises from within the individual because the activity is naturally satisfying to him/her. Examples of intrinsic .
English Proficiency Index), which is a standardized test aiming to find out countries’ level of English proficiency through gathering measurements of adult English proficiency, ranked Turkey 47th among 63 countries labeling Turkeys’ English proficiency band as ‘very low,’
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motivation scales for their research and classroom. The goals of this review were to identify a set of reading motivation student self-report scales used in research, examine the development and psychometric properties of each reading motivation scale, and compare scales on availability, reliability, age range, and motivation constructs measured.
Un additif alimentaire est défini comme ‘’ n’importe quelle substance habituellement non consommée comme un aliment en soi et non employée comme un ingrédient caractéristique de l’aliment, qu’il ait un une valeur nutritionnelle ou non, dont l’addition intentionnelle à l’aliment pour un but technologique dans la fabrication, le traitement, la préparation, l’emballage, le .
