Chapter-2 Straight And Level And Turns Sport Pilot Handbook

3-22Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane Handbookminimum sink speed is normally found somewhere between stall speed and the best glide speed. It’snot, however, a speed that you’ll find posted in most POHs. If you know what this speed is, then itmakes sense to use it when descending over the desired landing spot since it gives you more time totroubleshoot the engine problem or let someone know you’re making an emergency landing. Yourfinal approach and landing, however, should be made at approximately 30% above stall speed.Pitch and Power Techniques for Flying Your AirplaneUp to this point I’ve primarily discussed using the elevator control (pitch) and throttle (power)simultaneously when making changes in your glidepath and/or airspeed. This is just one of threedifferent ways you can use the yoke and throttle toThe Elevator-Airspeed Techniquechange either of these two conditions. Beforewe discuss the other two methods, let’sbe clear about what we’re going to disElevator movement(attitude change)cuss here.controls airspeedWhen we say that you controlyour airspeed, we’re saying thatyou manipulate either the throttleor elevator control to produce aspecific airspeed or keep the airspeed at a specific value. When wesay that you control your glidepath,we’re saying that you manipulateyour throttle or yoke to produce aspecific change in your airplane’svertical speed (which can be a descent rate or a climb rate). This follows from our previous airplaneperformance equation: Attitude (conThrottle movementtrolled by the yoke) Power (controlled bycontrols altitude orFig. 28glidepaththe throttle) Performance (the resulting airspeed and glidepath ).There are two conditions under which the formula A P P applies during flight. There’s a fixedpower condition and a variable power condition. Let’s take the first condition first.If you’re in an airplane that’s either climbing with full power or descending with the throttle setat some value and left alone, then your power (throttle) is considered to be fixed. In a fixed powercondition, you manipulate the elevator to change your airspeed, which also produces a change inyour flight path (either your descent rate or your climb rate if you’re climbing with full power).For instance, during a climb (power fixed) you adjust the elevator to provide a specific climb airspeedand accept the resulting climb rate. During a power-off descent (power fixed at idle), you typicallyadjust the elevator to yield a specific descent airspeed and accept whatever descent rate results.What happens when you make the power variable instead of leaving it fixed at either full poweror flight idle? Now things really get interesting because variable power allows you to have threeThe story goes like this. Two military C130 pilots decided to play a joke on a General riding jump seat ona flight. When the airplane is aligned with the runway, the copilot says, “Would you mind if I make the takeoff?” The captain says, “Please do.” Once airborne the captain says, “That’s a mighty fine takeoff for aLanding Pilot. The copilot says, “Oh, I’m not a Landing Pilot. I’m a Takeoff Pilot.” At which point the captainreplies, “You can’t be a Takeoff Pilot because I’m the Takeoff Pilot. Surely they wouldn’t have put two TakeoffPilots on the same airplane, would they?” The look on the General’s face was priceless.

5-20Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane HandbookWhy One Wing Stalls Before the OtherWhat causes one wing to stall before the other? The most common way for this toPicture - 2happen is to induce a skid as the wings approach their critical angle of attack. For inDstance, as the airplane approaches a stall from a left turn (Picture-1, position A), excessive left rudder is applied (or P-factor and slipstream yaw the nose to the left, sameeffect). This results in the nose yawing to the left, causing the right wing to move forwardslightly, giving it a slight increase in speed (and a bit more lift), and the left wing to moveaft slightly, giving it slightly less speed (and a little less lift). Now the airplane begins toroll to the left with the nose pointed inside the turn arc.The rising right wings’ angle of attack decreases slightly, while the descending leftwings’ angle of attack increases slightly, as shown in Picture-1, position B. As the leftwing moves down, it generates a relative wind from underneath, which tends to increaseits angle of attack. A rising right wing generates a relative wind from above (from a moreforward angle), which tends to reduce its angle of attack. Any deflection of the aileroncontrol to the right to maintain the bank angle further increases the angle of attack onthe left wing and decreases the angle of attack on the right wing. Ultimately, the left (descending) wing reaches its critical angle of attack before the right (rising) wing and theairplane enters a spin to the left, in the direction of the initial yaw (Picture-1, position C).This is why a skidding turn at the moment of a stall is likely to result in an airplane enEtering a spin. That’s why you want to prevent the nose from yawing and rolling by applying rudder during the stall if one wing begins to drop before the other.Now you also know why you don’t want to raise a dropping wing with use of aileron.Attempting to raise a dropping wing means the aileron on the descending wing movesdown, which further increases its angle of attack, deepening the stall on that wing.On the other hand, what happens if insufficient rudder is applied in the turn and theairplane slips at the moment of stall entry? Is this as conducive to spin entry? Let’s see.As the wings approach a stall from a leftAPicture - 1turn (Picture-2, position D), too much rightrudder (and/or excessive left aileron controlFdeflection) is applied. This results in a slipping turn to the left with the nose yawing tothe right, or outside the turn arc. This causesthe left wing to move forward slightly, givingit a slight increase in speed (and a bit morelift) and the right wing to move aft slightly,giving it slightly less speed (and a little lesslift).Now the airplane begins to roll to the right,with the nose pointed outside the turn arc.The rising left wing’s angle of attack decreases slightly and the descending right wing’sangle of attack increases slightly, as shown in Picture-2, position E. As the right wingmoves down, it generates a relative wind from underneath, which tends to increase itsangle of attack. A rising left wing experiences a reduction in angle of attack. Any deflectionBof the aileron control to the left to sustain the left bank further increases (right wing) anddecreases (left wing) the angle of attack. Ultimately, the right (descending) wing reachesits critical angle of attack before the left (rising) wing, and the airplane might enter a spinas the left wing goes over the top of the airplane as the airplane yaws and rolls to the right(Picture-2, position F).Did you notice that I was very careful to say “might” enter a spin there? It’s more difficultto enter a spin from a slip than a skid. Why? Looking at the airplane in Picture-2, positionE, it should be clear that the slipping airplane is still turning left (it’s in a slipping left turn).CIf a spin does occur in our example, it occurs to the right, which happens to be oppositethe direction of the turn. Because the direction of spin (to the right) would be opposite theairplane’s momentum (to the left) in the turn, the two tend to work against each other anddiminish the potential for the airplane to rotate and enter a spin. The result is that airplanestend to stall (not spin) more often from a slip.If they do begin to spin from a slip, the spin entry is not as dramatic as one from a skid.That’s not to say you can’t spin from a slipping turn, because you can. Keep in mind, however, that pilots regularly use slips when landing, and they do so at slower approachspeeds. If the potential to spin from a slip were significant, slips certainly wouldn’t be sucha popular maneuver among pilots, much less a maneuver you’re required to demonstrateon a private pilot checkride. Just remember that the aft moving wing always stalls FIRST!

Chapter 5: Stalls and Spins5-21How does the use of aileron to raise a dropAileron Application and Angle of Attackping wing increase the angle of attack on thatAs the left wing stalls andwing? Figure 27 shows how turndrops, attempting to raise it bying the yoke to the right lowersusing right aileron increasestheangle of attack on the leftthe aileron on the stalledwing, thus deepening the stall(left) wing, thus furtheron that wing.increasing the angle of attack on that wing beyondits critical value.Yo ur f i r s t re acti onwhenever a wing dropsshould be to reduce theangle of attack and simultaneously apply rudder toRight ailerondeepens thestop the yawing (or rolling)stall on themotion while neutralizing theleft wingailerons. You can’t spin if you don’tFig. 27yaw. Period! As a general rule during allLeft Wing Stalling and Dropping Firststalls, if one wing drops (or begins todrop) during a stall, resulting inthe airplane yawing and rollingtoward the dropping wing,leave the ailerons in their neutral position and release elevator back pressure to reduce12Airplane rollsRecover bythe angle of attack on bothand yaws tolowering thewings while simultaneouslythe left asnose andleft wingapplyingapplying sufficient rudder presstalls firstright ruddersure to stop the yawing motion.If a left wing drops, resultingin a yaw and roll to the left, applyFig. 28right rudder (Figure 28); if the rightwing drops, resulting in a yaw andRight Wing Stalling and Dropping Firstroll to the right, apply left rudder(Figure 29). As you are applyingrudder, you are simultaneouslyreducing the angle of attack.How much rudder pressure should you apply to stopthe yawing motion? Enoughto stop the yawing motion!1Airplane rollsThat’s right. Do whatever2and yaws toRecover byit takes, and don’t be shythe right aslowering theright wingnose andabout doing it. Push that rudstalls firstapplying leftder pedal all the way to the floorrudderboard if necessary. You’re usually atFig. 29a very slow airspeed, which means the

5-48Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane Handbookaileron in this example). This is quite1Cross-Controlled SlippingPower inducedcommon when the pilot realizes hisStall When Turning Ontoleft yawbank is excessively steep and usesFinal Approachaileron to reduce the bank angle. Theadverse yaw caused by the loweredaileron on the inside wing (left wing inthis example) pulls that wing aft, further yawing the airplane to the left, opposite the direction of turn (Figure 53).The result is a classic cross control con- 2Pilot increases bankdition that exacerbates the skid, possiwith aileron withoutbly leading to the wing inside the turnusing rudder to alignwith runway(left wing in this example) stalling first.Fig. 54Now let me put a kink in your wheel Pilot overshoots runway and3Cross-controlledpants by saying that a skidding turn uses aileron to increase bankand no rudder to turn onto final.condition results inonto final approach in a right turn isa right slipping turnless likely to occur than one in a left turn. How can that be? It’s allabout engine power. At the slower airspeeds and higher angles of attackassociated with power usage, the power-induced left turning tendenciestend to counteract the extra right rudder the pilot might apply to pullthe airplane’s nose to the right and align it with the runway centerline(I’m assuming the pilot has poor stick and rudder skills and is attempting to correct for a centerline overshoot). Given that most pilots arelikely to underuse rather than overuse their rudder pedals, in a rightturn to final it’s more likely that they’ll accidentally end up in coordinated flight (or something close to it) rather than skidding. Of course, theairplane can still stall, but without the skid it’s not as likely to stall and then spin.On the other hand, the pilot might attempt to correct for the overshoot by increasing the bankangle only (not using excessive rudder in this instance), as shown in Figure 54. He’s increasing thebank angle by adding right aileron with insufficient right rudder pressure. Adverse yaw pulls thenose to the left, outside the turn, with the left yawing tendency exacerbated by the power-inducedleft turning tendency. As the left wing moves aft, its speed decreases, decreasing the lift on that wing,resulting in it moving downwardCross-Controlled Stall While Slipping slightly. The downward movement in6creases the angle ofLeft wing stalls first5attack on the leftPilot adds rightaileron to lift lef twing, which makeswing and aft elethe wing outside thevator pressure tosustain the turnturn more likely tostall first (Figure 55).This type of stallresults from a slip4ping turn onto finalAirplane nose yawsapproach. If the airleft, left wing speeddecreases and wingplane does stall frommoves downwarda slip, the right wingFig. 55(the wing inside the

Chapter 6 - Takeoffs and Climbs6-13There are two problemsAFlight Control Use on Takeoffstudents typically experience during the initialAirplane yaws totakeoff. The first is thatleft of runwaythey tend to be eitherham fisted or balletdainty on the elevatorcontrol—either pullingaft too hard or not hardenough. The second bigtakeoff issue occurswhen insufficient rightInsufficient right rudderand aileron applicationrudder is applied just afterduring takeoffliftoff. Until liftoff, P-factor(which increases with an inBcrease in angle of attack)Airplane tracksrunway centerlinehas no affect on the airplane. As soon as theangle of attack increases during rotation, the left yawingtendency of the noseincreases (Figure 17,position A). You mustapply sufficient rightAppropriate application ofrudder and aileron duringrudder to keep the airand after the liftoffFig. 17plane aligned with theDuring the takeoff roll and subsequent climb, apply sufficient rightextended runway centerrudder pressure to compensate for the airplane’s power-induced leftline and keep it coordinated,turning tendency or the airplane will track left of the centerline.too. Whatever you do, don’t belike the pilot whose rudder skills are so Squeeze PlayThis instructor and student used the POH to calculate the rotation speedpoor that the only reason his airplane ap- but neglected to follow the procedure for leaning the fuel mixture [for takepears to fly straight on takeoff is because off]. They put their C172 into a spot where there was not enough speed toof the coriolis force. Adding right rudder takeoff and not enough runway left to abort.With full tanks and increasing density altitude, the engine was unalso means applying whatever aileron de- able to produce the needed power to achieve the rotation speed of 48flection is needed to keep the wings level knots. After passing the intersection of Runway 13/31 we were at 42 knots.At this point we decided to rotate because there was not enough runway(Figure 17, position B).left to abort the takeoff. Unfortunately, after rotation, the stall warningHow do you know if you’re aligned with horn sounded at about 10 feet. We did not have enough distance to climbclear the obstacles at the departure end of the runway. We decidedthe runway centerline after liftoff? The andto cut the power and land. At this point we believed that there was somebest reference is to look directly ahead of runway and hard grass surface to stop the plane. Unfortunately, theyou at either the end of the runway (if you brakes did not catch the wet grass and we slid into the plowed field 200feet south of the runway.can still see it over the airplane’s nose) orIn my opinion, if we had tried to keep it in the air the outcome couldsome distant reference you spied just be- have been much worse. However, there were some errors in our judgefore takeoff. Sometimes that’s a bit chal- ment. The density altitude was significantly higher than it had been in thelast several months. Keeping the high density altitude in mind, apparentlylenging, given the high nose-up attitude one thing that we could have done to produce more power [would havethat’s normal during climb. You simply been to] lean the mixture for takeoff.ASRS Reportcan’t see through your instrument panel

7-18Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane HandbookAs you approach the upwind point of the circle (theCrab270 degree turn point), asshown in Figure 24, positionD, your groundspeed begins toincrease slightly because thewind is no longer blowing directly on your nose. You’ll haveto increase the bank slightly tomaintain the correct turningradius. However, you’ll alsoneed to keep the airplane’snose pointed slightly outsideyour imagined circular groundtrack in order to keep yourturn radius from decreasing. Apply the same WCAyou used at the 90 degreeof turn point (the WCAwon’t change much andif it does change a little,that’s due to slightchanges in airspeed dueto bank angle).How do you do that?G ra d u a l l y i n cr e ase th ebank angle to compensate forthe increasing groundspeedbut not so fast as to pull the noseparallel to or inside the imaginedturn arc (Figure 25, position D). InMax WCAAngle IncreasedDDwind correctionGroundspeed increasing, nk increasingangle increasing and baFig. 25The ThirdQuarter OfTurns AroundA PointCMax wind correctionangle at position DAs the airplaneprogresses frompositions C to D, itexperiences less of aheadwind but more of acrosswind. Therefore, asits groundspeed increases,you must progressively allowthe airplane to turn slightlyoutside the turn arc to establishthe desired wind correction angle.DFig. 24Turns Around a Point - Graphically ExplainedSometimes there’s nothing like a good graphto help you make sense of a particular maneuver. So let me help you understand how to usethe Turns Around a Point graph to the right.On the left side of the graph are three verticalcolor coded bars representing the wind correction angle, the groundspeed and the bankangle used in this maneuver. The top of thesebars represent maximum values (MAX) whilethe bottom represents minimum values (MIN).The graph’s horizontal axis represents the degrees of turn throughout the maneuver. Position#A represents the beginning and end of the maneuv

Rod Machado’s How to Fly an Airplane Handbook Published by The Aviation Speakers Bureau (800) 437-7080 Website: www.rodmachado.com eBook Version - 44.95 Rod Machado Flight Maneuvers And Stick and Rudder Skills A complete learn to fly handbook by one of aviation’s most knowledgeable and experienced flight instructors