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NAVA L WA R C OL L E G E N EWP ORT PA P E R SETHUNITED STANAVA L WA R C OLLE GE N EW P ORT PA P E R SNAVR COLLEGEWAV I R I BU SInnovation in Carrier AviationALSTETOM A RI VI C37RIA37Thomas C. HoneNorman FriedmanMark D. Mandeles
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Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenInnovation in Carrier AviationNAVETHSTER COLLEGEWAALUNITED STAThomas C. Hone, Norman Friedman, andMark D. MandelesV I R I BUSTOM A RI VI CNAVA L WA R C O L L E GE P R E SSNewport, Rhode IslandRIANP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenTom Hone: “To Bailey Siletchnik, whom I could only beat at Scrabble by cheating.”Norman Friedman: “To my wife Rhea, without whom nothing would be possible.”Mark Mandeles: “To Laura.”Naval War CollegeNewport, Rhode IslandCenter for Naval Warfare StudiesNewport Paper Thirty-SevenAugust 2011President, Naval War CollegeRear Adm. John N. Christenson, USNProvostAmb. Mary Ann PetersDean of Naval Warfare StudiesRobert C. RubelNaval War College PressDirector: Dr. Carnes LordManaging Editor: Pelham G. BoyerTelephone: 401.841.2236Fax: 401.841.1071DSN exchange: 841E-mail: press@usnwc.eduWeb: www.usnwc.edu/pressTwitter: http://twitter.com/NavalWarCollegeThe Newport Papers are extended research projects that theDirector, the Dean of Naval Warfare Studies, and thePresident of the Naval War College consider of particularinterest to policy makers, scholars, and analysts.The views expressed in the Newport Papers are those of theauthors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of theNaval War College or the Department of the Navy.Correspondence concerning the Newport Papers may beaddressed to the Director of the Naval War College Press.To request additional copies, back copies, or subscriptionsto the series, please either write the President (Code 32S),Naval War College, 686 Cushing Road, Newport, RI02841-1207, or contact the Press staff at the telephone, fax,or e-mail addresses given.Reproduction and printing are subject to the Copyright Actof 1976 and applicable treaties of the United States. Thisdocument may be freely reproduced for academic or othernoncommercial use; however, it is requested thatreproductions credit the author and Newport Papers seriesand that the Press editorial office be informed. To obtainpermission to reproduce this publication for commercialpurposes, contact the Press editorial office.ISSN 1544-6824Printed in the United States of AmericaISBN 978-1-884733-85-7NP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenContentsList of Figures and TablesvList of Acronyms and AbbreviationsviiAcknowledgmentsxiForeword, by Carnes LordIntroductionxiii1CHAPTER ONEBuAer before World War II11CHAPTER TWOBuAer in World War II23CHAPTER THREEThe Potential of the Big Bomber35CHAPTER FOURRoyal Navy Wartime Experience andAnalysis45CHAPTER FIVEAdopting Jet Engines53CHAPTER SIXBritish and American Prospects afterthe War69CHAPTER SEVENThe Flexdeck89CHAPTER EIGHTCatapults: Choosing an Option underPressure99CHAPTER NINEAnalysisConclusionAPPENDIX ANP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM123157The Physics of Jet Propulsion173
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenivTHE NEWPORT PAPERSAPPENDIX BThe Impact of Jet Aircraft on Carriers177APPENDIX CProblem Solving within Bureaucracies 181APPENDIX DChronology185Bibliography193About the Authors197Index199The Newport Papers219NP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenList of Figures and TablesFiguresFIGURE 1-1Fighter Speed, in Knots, for SelectedFighters—Royal Navy, U.S. Navy, andImperial Japanese Navy14FIGURE 1-2Service Ceiling, in Feet, for SelectedFighters—Royal Navy, U.S. Navy, andImperial Japanese Navy15FIGURE B-1Stall Speed vs. Prototype Year178FIGURE B-2Takeoff Weight vs. Year179FIGURE B-3Roll at 25 Knots WOD vs. Year180TablesTABLE 2-1Characteristics of Aircraft to Replacethe SB2C24TABLE 2-2BuAer’s Fighter Aircraft Characteristics,1936–4326TABLE 2-3Comparison of Navy Aircraft withArmy 1942 Models27Catapults Developed by the NavalAircraft Factory, 1936–4529TABLE 2-4TABLE B-1Carrier Fighter-Bomber/Attack Aircraftat the End of World War II177TABLE B-2Weight ComparisonNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM178
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Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenList of Acronyms and AbbreviationsABCDEAdm.AdmiralAEWairborne early warningALCOAmerican Locomotive CompanyBuAerBureau of AeronauticsBuOrdBureau of OrdnanceBuShipsBureau of ShipsCCAcarrier-controlled approachCapt.CaptainCdr.CommanderCICcombat information centerCinCCommander in ChiefCINCPACCommander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet [in World War II]CNOChief of Naval OperationsCNRChief of Naval ResearchCOCommanding OfficerCVaircraft carrierCVANattack aircraft carrier, nuclear-poweredDCNO (Air)Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for AirDCNO (Logistics)Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for LogisticsDNCDirector of Naval ConstructionEICEngineer-in-ChiefNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenviiiFGHIJLMNTHE NEWPORT PAPERSFAAFleet Air ArmFBCFuture Building Committeeft./sec.feet per secondFYfiscal yeargacceleration of gravityGEGeneral ElectricGLOMBglider bombhphorsepowerHTPhydrogen peroxideIJNImperial Japanese NavyJATOjet-assisted takeofflb.poundLSOlanding signal officerLt.LieutenantLt. Cdr.Lieutenant CommanderMAPMinistry of Aircraft ProductionMITMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyMod.modificationmphmiles per hourNACANational Advisory Committee for AeronauticsNADNaval Aircraft DepartmentNAMCNaval Air Material CenterNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenINNOVATION IN CARRIER AVIATIONOPRSTUWNATONorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNDRCNational Defense Research CommitteeONIOffice of Naval IntelligenceOPNAVOffice of the Chief of Naval OperationsOSD(NA)Office of the Secretary of Defense (Net Assessment)PROPublic Records Officepsipounds per square inchR&Dresearch and developmentRAERoyal Aircraft EstablishmentRAFRoyal Air Forcerepr.reprinted byRGrecord groupRNRoyal NavySAMsurface-to-air missileSCBShip Characteristics BoardTACANTactical Air NavigationUSAFU.S. Air ForceUSNU.S. NavyWODwind over the deckNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:41 PMix
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Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenAcknowledgmentsOur main sources for the study were Royal Navy records held by the Public RecordsOffice (PRO), U.S. Navy papers held by the National Archives and by the Aviation History Office of the Naval History and Heritage Command, records of the Grumman Aircraft Corporation held in the Northrop Grumman archives, memoirs of Royal Navy(RN) and U.S. Navy (USN) personnel, memoirs of American aviation engineers, andoral histories of Americans involved in the development of jet aircraft and modern carrier aviation. We also consulted books and articles that were well researched.In obtaining this material, we were assisted by the following individuals: Dr. EvelynCherpak, of the Naval War College; Dr. Curtis Utz and Dr. Timothy Francis, of theNaval History and Heritage Command; Dr. Hill Goodspeed, of the Naval AviationMuseum in Pensacola, Florida; Lt. Cdr. Peter J. Hardy, RN (Ret.), of HMS Heron; andMs. Susan Dearing, of the Fleet Air Arm Museum. All were generous with their timeand their expertise. None bears responsibility for any errors in this study.Vice Adm. Robert Dunn, USN (Ret.), also read an early draft of the study and alertedus to several sources we had missed, including Farnborough and the Fleet Air Arm, byGeoffrey Cooper. Professor Donald Chisholm of the Naval War College and Dr. JeffreyG. Barlow of the Naval History and Heritage Command also shared their insights.Ms. G. F. Siletchnik of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center graciously constructed thegraphs in appendix B. Mr. Trent Hone organized the manuscript.The study on which this monograph is based was commissioned by the Office of theSecretary of Defense (Net Assessment) in the fall of 2006 as part of that office’s longstanding support for studies of military innovation. In some sense, the OSD(NA)project was a follow-on to an earlier study by the present coauthors, published in1999 as American & British Aircraft Carrier Development, 1919–1941 by the NavalInstitute Press.In the mid-1980s, Andrew Marshall, the director of the Office of Net Assessment in theOffice of the Secretary of Defense, encouraged a number of investigators to examinecases of innovation in the U.S. armed forces and in the armed forces of other countries.His encouragement, coupled with the financial support of his office, led to a number ofstudies, among which was the book American & British Aircraft Carrier Development,NP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:42 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenxiiTHE NEWPORT PAPERS1919–1941 (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999), written by the authors of thestudy that you are about to read.The success of American & British Aircraft Carrier Development, 1919–1941 led Mr.Marshall to ask whether we might examine the development of the modern aircraftcarrier after World War II. We already knew that the three essential innovations—thesteam catapult, the angled flight deck, and the optical landing aid—had been developedfirst in Great Britain for and by the Royal Navy. Then all three innovations had beenpicked up by the U.S. Navy.But why, Mr. Marshall wanted to know, had the Royal Navy developed these innovations first? He asked us to come together and answer that question, as well as the relatedquestion of how these innovations were “transferred” so quickly to the U.S. Navy. Mr.Marshall’s interest was in the process of innovation and in how innovations spread. Wehave tried to find answers to his questions.In the late spring of 2006, the authors presented Net Assessment with a proposal. In thefall of 2006, Net Assessment agreed to fund research by Dr. Friedman and Dr. Mandeles.At the same time, the Naval War College agreed to allow Dr. Hone to devote some ofhis effort as a faculty member to the study. The written result of the research conductedby these three analysts—delayed by some unanticipated obstacles—is in the pagesthat follow.NP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:42 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenForewordIn a widely noted speech to the Navy League Sea-Air-Space Expo in May 2010, Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates warned that “the Navy and Marine Corps must bewilling to reexamine and question basic assumptions in light of evolving technologies,new threats, and budget realities. We simply cannot afford to perpetuate a status quothat heaps more and more expensive technologies onto fewer and fewer platforms—thereby risking a situation where some of our greatest capital expenditures go towardweapons and ships that could potentially become wasting assets.” Secretary Gates specifically questioned whether the Navy’s commitment to a force of eleven carrier strikegroups through 2040 makes sense, given the extent of the anticipated superiority of theUnited States over potential adversaries at sea as well as the growing threat of antishipmissiles. Though later disclaiming any immediate intention to seek a reduction in thecurrent carrier force, Gates nevertheless laid down a clear marker that all who are concerned over the future of the U.S. Navy would be well advised to take with the utmostseriousness.We may stand, then, at an important watershed in the evolution of carrier aviation, onereflecting not only the nation’s current financial crisis but the changing nature of thethreats to, or constraints on, American sea power, as well as—something the secretarydid not mention—the advent of a new era of unmanned air and sea platforms of alltypes. Taken together, these developments argue for resolutely innovative thinkingabout the future of the nation’s carrier fleet and our surface navy more generally.In Innovation in Carrier Aviation, number thirty-seven in our Newport Papers monograph series, Thomas C. Hone, Norman Friedman, and Mark D. Mandeles examine thewatershed period in carrier development that occurred immediately following WorldWar II, when design advances were made that would be crucial to the centrality innational-security policy making that carriers and naval aviation have today. In thoseyears several major technological breakthroughs—notably the jet engine and nuclearweapons—raised large questions about the future and led to an array of innovations inthe design and operational utilization of aircraft carriers.Central to this story is the collaboration between the aviation communities in thenavies of the United States and Great Britain during these years, building on the intimate relationship they had developed during the war itself. Strikingly, the most important of these innovations, notably the angled flight deck and steam catapult, originatedNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:42 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenxivTHE NEWPORT PAPERSwith the British, not the Americans. This study thereby also provides interesting lessonsfor the U.S. Navy today with respect to its commitment to maritime security cooperation in the context of its new “maritime strategy.” It is a welcome and important addition to the historiography of the Navy in the seminal years of the Cold War.CARNES LORDDirector, Naval War College PressNewport, Rhode IslandNP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport Paper\ NP37\ VP\NP 37.vpWednesday, August 03, 2011 2:53:42 PM
Color profile: DisabledComposite Default screenIntroductionThis study is about innovations in carrier aviation and the spread of those innovationsfrom one navy to the navy of a close ally. The innovations are the angled flight deck;the steam catapult; and the mirror and lighted landing aid that enabled pilots to landjet aircraft on a carrier’s short and narrow flight deck.This study is different from our previous study of innovation in the development anduse of aircraft carriers, U.S. & British Aircraft Carrier Development, 1919–1941, whichcompared innovation in carrier aviation in the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy in theyears before World War II. At the time, the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy were competitors. The two navies did not share technical information and in fact worked to hidetheir advances from one another, despite the fact that they had cooperated closely during World War I. Only in the winter of 1940–41 was there a renewal of the close professional contact between the naval aviators of the two nations that had first blossomed in1918. Those initial cooperative relations grew into a very strong relationship duringWorld War II, when British carriers were often equipped with mostly U.S.-made aircraft and many British pilots trained in the United States.After World War II the cooperation continued, and as we show in the pages to follow, ithad major benefits for both navies—but especially for the U.S. Navy, which had theresources to construct the large carriers and carrier aircraft that came to be seen as “theworld standard” starting in the mid-1950s. Indeed, the cooperation between the U.S.Navy and the Royal Navy after World War II facilitated an eventual dramatic improvement in the USN’s carrier aviation, as we shall show.Though this is a study of innovations and the diffusion of innovations, it is really astudy of professional people—civilian and military pilots, civilian and military engineers, and leaders of military and civilian organizations. The effort to put modern jetaircraft on aircraft carriers depended on courageous, dedicated, and clever individualsin both Great Britain and the United States. These individuals did their work withinorganizations established to develop and field modern naval aircraft, especially the U.S.NP 37.psC:\ WIP\ Newport
Fighters—Royal Navy, U.S. Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy 14 FIGURE 1-2 Service Ceiling, in Feet, for Selected Fighters—Royal Navy, U.S. Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy 15 FIGURE B-1 Stall Speed vs. Prototype Year 178 FIGURE B-2 Takeoff Weight vs. Year 179 FIGURE B-3 Roll at 25 Knots WOD vs. Year 180 Tables TABLE 2-1 Characteristics of .
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